9 Biological Threats and Growth in Space [Sincavage & Muehlfelder & Carter]

ABSTRACT

Biological threats in space pose significant challenges for human space exploration. It requires comprehensive research and development of innovative strategies to mitigate risks and ensure the safety and sustainability of space missions. This chapter provides an overview of biological threats to spacecraft and astronauts, including technological development through time and considerations for future growth. It emphasizes the importance of collaboration between government agencies, industry partners, and academic institutions to address the complex issues of biological threats within new space exploration.

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Explain the difference between forward and backward contamination when discussing biological threats in space.
• Describe the diverse types of threats posed by pathogens within spacecraft.
• Define critical technologies to mitigate biological risks and help advance space exploration.

INTRODUCTION

Biological threats and growth in space are two important topics that have gained significant attention in recent years. The possibility of biological threats in space is a primary concern for astronauts and space agencies, as exposure to harmful microorganisms can severely affect human health. As space exploration and research continue to advance, the possibility of encountering biological threats in space becomes an ever-growing concern. These threats can come from microorganisms, viruses, and other pathogens that may adversely affect human health and the environment. Understanding the nature of these biological threats and developing effective countermeasures is essential for ensuring safe and successful space missions. On the other hand, growth in space has become an area of interest due to its potential to support long-term space missions and even colonize other planets. This topic involves studying the behavior of living organisms in microgravity conditions, vacuum, and high radiation environments, which can provide insights into the fundamental principles of life.

DEFINITION OF BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

Biological threats in space refer to the potential danger posed by microorganisms or pathogens that may exist in extraterrestrial environments or travel from Earth into space habitats. The possibility of such threats arises since microorganisms are ubiquitous and can survive in extreme conditions, including those in space. In addition, human space exploration and colonization activities involve the introduction of new organisms into extraterrestrial environments, which could disrupt existing ecosystems and pose risks to human health.

The potential biological threats in space include both naturally occurring microorganisms and those that are intentionally or accidentally introduced by humans. Naturally occurring microorganisms such as comets, asteroids, and celestial bodies appear in extraterrestrial environments. These microorganisms may have evolved to survive in extreme conditions such as low temperatures, high radiation levels, and lack of water. Intentional or accidental introduction of microorganisms by humans can occur through the contamination of spacecraft or equipment used for space exploration or through the release of waste materials into space habitats.

Biological threats in space can be significant for human health and extraterrestrial ecosystems. Microorganisms that harm humans can cause infections, allergies, and other health problems. In addition, introducing new organisms into extraterrestrial environments can disrupt existing ecosystems and alter natural processes.

Various measures are continuously being developed and implemented by space agencies and organizations to address the potential biological threats in space. These include strict protocols for spacecraft sterilization, quarantine procedures for astronauts returning from space missions, and monitoring of extraterrestrial environments for signs of microbial activity.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

The exploration and colonization of space have been a topic of interest for scientists and researchers for decades. However, with the increasing number of missions and expeditions to space, there is a growing concern about the potential biological threats that may arise. Studying biological threats in space is crucial to ensure the safety and well-being of astronauts and prevent the spread of harmful microorganisms from Earth to Earth.

One of the primary reasons for studying biological threats in space is the potential impact on human health. The microgravity environment of space can weaken the immune system, making astronauts more susceptible to infections. Moreover, harmless microorganisms on Earth may become virulent in space due to mutations caused by radiation exposure or other environmental factors. Therefore, understanding the behavior and evolution of microorganisms in space is essential to develop effective preventive measures and treatments.

Another reason for studying biological threats in space is the risk of contamination. Spacecraft returning from missions may carry microorganisms that can survive in the harsh conditions of space. If these microorganisms are not adequately contained and decontaminated, they may threaten Earth’s ecosystems and public health. Therefore, it is crucial to identify and monitor potential contaminants and develop protocols for their safe handling.

Furthermore, studying biological threats in space can also provide insights into the origins of life on Earth and other planets. Microorganisms found in extreme environments such as space may have unique genetic adaptations that could shed light on the evolution of life on Earth and the possibility of extraterrestrial life.

Overall, studying biological threats in space is essential for ensuring the safety and well-being of astronauts, preventing contamination, and advancing our understanding of life on Earth and beyond.

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

Early Space Missions

Space exploration has always been a fascinating subject for scientists and researchers. However, discovering the unknown comes with several risks, including biological threats. The potential risks of biological contamination in space have been a concern since the beginning of space exploration.

During World War II, the German army conducted experiments on human subjects to study the effects of high altitude on the human body (Burgess & Dubbs, 2007). These experiments used high-altitude chambers and pressurized suits that simulated high-altitude conditions. The experiments showed that exposure to high altitude could cause severe physiological changes in the human body, including hypoxia and decompression sickness. However, these experiments also raised concerns about potential biological contamination in space.

According to a study by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), “The first living organisms sent into space were fruit flies aboard a U.S. V-2 rocket launched by the Army Ballistic Missile Agency on February 20, 1947” (Joosse, 2023). Since then, various missions have been conducted, including manned missions, that have exposed astronauts and spacecraft to different biological threats.

From the 1950s to the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union launched several missions that carried biological samples into space, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi (Beischer & Fregly, 1962). The multiple missions’ goal was to study the effects of microgravity and radiation on living organisms. However, they also raised concerns about the potential to contaminate other planets or spacecraft.

In 1961, Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit Earth (Mai, 1961). Several other manned missions by both countries followed this achievement. However, these missions also raised concerns about potential biological contamination in space. The astronauts were exposed to various microorganisms during their training and preparation for space flight. There was a risk that microorganisms could contaminate the spacecraft and infect other crew members.

Concerns amplified between 1968 and 1972 with the U.S. Apollo missions to the moon. The possibility of sending a person to a celestial object changed how scientists viewed biological contamination in space. To address these concerns, NASA developed strict protocols for preventing biological contamination during manned missions (Carter, 2001). These protocols included rigorous cleaning and sterilization of the spacecraft, quarantine of the crew before launch, and monitoring the crew’s health during the mission. These protocols were effective in preventing any major biological incidents during manned missions. The same precautions were taken during the Viking missions to Mars in the 1970s. However, only in the 1990s did the threat of biological contamination in space become more widely recognized.

One of the most famous incidents involving biological contamination in space occurred in 1967, when the Surveyor 3 spacecraft returned to Earth, carrying bacteria that had survived on the moon’s surface for over two years (Rummel, Allton, & Morrison, 2011). This incident startled the aerospace community and highlighted the need for stricter protocols to prevent contamination of other celestial bodies during future missions. However, it was found later that the contamination came from personnel after the craft returned to Earth.

In 1971, the Soviet Union launched the first space station, Salyut 1 (Mars, 2021). This event marked a new era in space exploration, allowing for longer-duration missions. However, with more extended missions came new challenges in preventing biological contamination. The crew members were exposed to various microorganisms for an extended period, increasing the risk of infection. To address these challenges, NASA and other space agencies developed newer protocols for preventing biological contamination during long-duration missions (Carter, 2001).

However, one of the most significant events in the history of biological threats in space was the declared discovery of life on Mars. Not only could we carry the threat of contamination to space, but there was also a threat from above. In 1996, NASA announced that they had discovered evidence of microbial life on a meteorite believed to have originated from Mars (Savage, Hartsfield, & Salisbury, 1996). The meteorite, ALH84001, was recovered from Antarctica’s Allan Hills ice field in 1984. Later, scientists from NASA who analyzed the meteorite described what was fossilized bacteria on its surface. To this day, the discovery was disputed by scientists. However, the discovery sparked renewed interest in the search for life on other planets and increased concerns about the potential for contamination from outer space.

FIGURE 9-1 The Allan Hills 84001 Meteorite

Source: (Scalice, 2022)

The history of biological threats in space dates to the early days of space exploration. The potential risks of biological contamination have always been a concern for scientists and researchers, which still holds today. However, with the development of advanced technologies and strict protocols for preventing biological contamination, the risk of a significant biological incident during manned missions has been significantly reduced.

MODERN SPACE MISSIONS

Modern space missions have increasingly focused on studying biological threats in space and other planets. Since the beginning of human space exploration, scientists have been concerned about the potential risks of biological contamination and the spread of disease between our world and other celestial bodies. The unique environment of space provides a valuable opportunity to study the effects of microgravity and radiation on living organisms, including pathogens that could threaten human health. In recent years, several missions were launched to study and help prevent biological threats to protect astronauts and future space travelers. These missions have involved collaborations between various space agencies and private companies, including NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS), the China National Space Administration (CNSA), SpaceX, and others. This section will briefly review recent and ongoing space missions, including some of their experiments.

1. International Space Station (ISS): The ISS is a joint project between NASA, ROSCOSMOS, ESA, JAXA, and CSA, continuously inhabited since November of 2000 (Howell, 2023). The ISS provides a unique platform for conducting long-term studies on the effects of microgravity on human physiology and biology. Several experiments have been conducted on board the ISS to study the effects of microgravity on bone density, muscle mass, cardiovascular function, immune system, and other physiological systems.

* Biomolecule Extraction and Sequencing Technology (BEST): This investigation occurs on the International Space Station (ISS). This investigation aims to identify unknown microbial organisms that may be present on the ISS and assess their potential risks to human health. The BEST investigation uses advanced DNA sequencing technology to analyze samples collected from various surfaces on the ISS, including air filters, water systems, and crew quarters (Johnson, 2018).

* One of the primary goals of the ISS missions is to understand how microorganisms behave in microgravity environments. Studies have shown that microorganisms can adapt to these conditions and become more virulent, potentially threatening astronauts and spacecraft. To address this concern, NASA has launched several missions to study microbial behavior in space, including the Microbial Observatory-1 (MO-1) mission beginning in 2003 and the Microbial Tracking-1, 2, & 3 (MT-1, MT-2, MT-3) missions beginning in 2006. This investigation uses specialized equipment to collect samples from various locations around the ISS, analyze their genetic makeup, and track the movement of the microbes (Tabor, 2021).

FIGURE 9-2 International Space Station

Source: (The Guardian, 2010)

2. Mars Science Laboratory (MSL): The MSL is a NASA mission that landed the Curiosity rover on Mars in 2012. The mission’s primary objective is to study Mars’s geology and habitability. However, the mission also includes several experiments to study the effects of radiation on living organisms. The rover carries a radiation detector that measures the levels of radiation on the Martian surface, which can help scientists understand how radiation affects living organisms in space (Dunbar, 2017).
3. ExoMars: is a joint mission between ESA and ROSCOSMOS that aims to search for signs of past or present life on Mars. The mission includes a rover and a stationary lander that will conduct experiments to study the Martian environment and search for biosignatures. One of the mission’s key objectives is understanding how life can survive in extreme environments like Mars (European Space Agency, 2023).
4. The BioSentinel mission: is scheduled for launch in 2024. The mission will send a small spacecraft equipped with yeast cells into deep space to study the effects of cosmic radiation on living organisms. The yeast cells will be genetically modified to detect and report levels of radiation exposure, providing valuable data for future manned missions beyond low Earth orbit (Ahmed, 2022).
5. Bion-M: is a series of Russian space missions that aim to study the effects of microgravity and other spaceflight factors on living organisms. The missions have carried a variety of animals into space already, including mice, rats, geckos, and fruit flies, to study the effects of spaceflight on their physiology and behavior. The data collected from these missions enable scientists to understand better how living organisms adapt to the extreme conditions of space. Further launches for Bion-M missions will launch in 2024 (Kovo, 2014).
6. The Mars Sample Return Mission will occur in the 2030s. The mission will involve collecting samples from Mars and returning them to Earth for analysis. One of the primary goals of this mission is to search for signs of past or present microbial life on Mars. Studying these samples could provide valuable insights into the potential for life beyond Earth and inform our understanding of biological threats in space (NASA, 2023).

These current space missions and scientific conferences demonstrate a growing interest in studying biological threats in space and developing countermeasures to protect astronauts and future space travelers. Modern missions are determined to study and prevent biological threats in space and are critical for ensuring the safety of astronauts and protecting other celestial bodies from contamination. As space exploration expands, these missions will play an increasingly important role in maintaining the integrity of our home and solar system.

EMERGENCE OF BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

In the early stages of space exploration, The Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) was established on October 3, 1958, by the International Council for Scientific Unions. COSPAR’s objectives were, and still are, to “promote, on an international level, scientific space research, with emphasis on the exchange of results, information, and opinions, and to provide a forum, open to all scientists, for the discussion of problems that may affect scientific space research” (International Space Council, 2023). Through its guidance, The Outer Space Treaty was signed on October 10, 1967, between the U.S., Moscow, and the U.K., with 113 countries adding themselves to the agreement. The treaty formulated policies that spacefaring nations could adhere to and was based on scientific knowledge. Article 9 of the agreement paved the way for regulations about “Forward Contamination” and “Backward Contamination” during space travel (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2023).

According to NASA’s Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (OSMA), Forward Contamination refers to the “unintentional transfer of terrestrial organisms or biological material from Earth to another celestial body, such as a planet or moon” (Keith, 2021). Accidental transfer can occur during space exploration missions when spacecraft, landers, or rovers carry microorganisms or other organic materials that may contaminate the target environment. The concern is that if these organisms survive and proliferate on another celestial body, they could interfere with scientific investigations and potentially compromise the search for extraterrestrial life.

Backward Contamination, on the other hand, refers to “the potential contamination of Earth by extraterrestrial organisms or biological material” (Keith, 2023). This contamination could occur when samples collected from another celestial body are returned to Earth for analysis. The concern is that if any potentially hazardous microorganisms or other biological entities are present in these samples, they could risk terrestrial ecosystems and human health.

FIGURE 9-3 Bacteria found on Curiosity before launch

Source: (Stromberg, 2014)

Both forward and backward contamination are essential considerations in space exploration missions. However, the big question is, can a pathogen survive in space?

A pathogen describes an infectious microorganism or agent, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, prions, viroids, or fungi (Alberts, Johnson, & Lewis, 2022). The question of whether a pathogen can survive in space is a complex one, with many factors to consider. The short answer is that some pathogens can survive in space. However, much depends on several variables, such as the type of pathogen, gravity, moisture, radiation exposure, and whether it is inside of a vessel or outside of the vessel.

One of the primary factors determining whether a pathogen can survive exposure outside a craft in space is its ability to withstand extreme temperatures and radiation. In space, there is no atmosphere to protect against solar radiation and other high-energy particles. Any pathogen exposed to these conditions would be subjected to high levels of ionizing radiation, which can damage or destroy genetic material.

However, some viruses are more resistant to radiation than others. For example, research has shown that the bacteriophage T7 virus can survive exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, even when it is dried onto a surface (Tom, Molineux, Paff, & Bull, 2018). Similarly, studies have found that other viruses, like adenovirus and herpes simplex, can also survive exposure to ionizing radiation (Mezhir, et al., 2005).

Another factor that plays a role in whether a pathogen can survive in outer space is its ability to resist desiccation (drying out). No atmosphere or water vapor creates humidity in space, so any virus exposed to these conditions would quickly dry out. However, some viruses are better adapted to dry environments than others. For example, research has shown that norovirus (which causes gastroenteritis) can survive on surfaces for several days, even when completely dry (Warnes & Keevil, 2013).

Overall, while some pathogens can survive in the vacuum of space, the conditions are harsh and inhospitable. Most organisms would not be able to withstand the extreme temperatures, radiation, and desiccation in space on the outside of a vessel. Furthermore, without a contained environment, pathogens could not reproduce or conduct metabolic processes independently. Instead, they rely heavily on sustainable host environments to replicate and spread.

On the other hand, the inside of a vessel traveling through space is different, carrying humans, moisture, and a protective atmosphere to have pathogens thrive. Spaceflight has further demonstrated to have various effects on microorganisms, including changes in their virulence and antibiotic resistance. Microgravity, radiation, and other spaceflight-related stressors can alter microbial physiology and gene expression, potentially harming outcomes.

For example, one study found that Salmonella typhimurium bacteria grown in spaceflight conditions exhibited increased virulence compared to their ground-grown counterparts (Nickerson et al., 2004). The researchers also observed changes in the expression of genes related to bacterial metabolism, stress response, and pathogenesis.

Another study investigated the effect of spaceflight on Staphylococcus aureus, a common bacterial pathogen that can cause a wide variety of clinical diseases such as Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). On the exterior of the human body, it is usually not a threat. Still, if introduced to the bloodstream or internal tissues, it can cause various life-threatening infections. The researchers in the study found that S. aureus grown in spaceflight conditions had increased virulence and antibiotic resistance compared to their “ground-based” counterparts (Kim, et al., 2013).

These studies suggest that spaceflight can change microbial physiology and virulence that may affect human health during prolonged space missions. Continued research in this area is ongoing and needed to understand better the mechanisms underlying these changes and to develop strategies for mitigating potential risks for forward and backward contamination. Understanding these risks helps establish ethical guidelines and protocols for planetary safety and preventing harmful contamination of our world and other celestial bodies.

TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE  

Biological threats in space refer to the risks posed by microorganisms, viruses, and other biological agents to the health and safety of astronauts and space travelers. These threats can arise from various sources, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, plants, contaminated equipment, human carriers, and exposure to extraterrestrial microorganisms. Biological threats and growth in space are a growing concern for the future of space exploration. As humans continue to explore and colonize other planets, they will inevitably bring with them their biological threats and be susceptible to microorganisms from otherworldly sources. In addition, the growth of these organisms in space can be challenging to control due to the lack of gravity and other environmental factors.

Bacteria

The most common biological threat in space is bacteria. Bacteria are tiny, single-celled organisms that can survive in extreme environments, including those in space. They can cause disease and infection if they contact humans or other living organisms. Bacteria can also reproduce quickly, making them difficult to contain or eliminate once they have established themselves in a new environment.

Bacteria pose a significant threat to space exploration, as they can contaminate spacecraft and potentially harm astronauts. According to the Encyclopedia of Microbiology, “The risk of contamination of other planets or moons with terrestrial microorganisms is a major concern in space exploration” (Lederberg, et al., 2000). Bacteria can survive in extreme conditions, such as those found in space, and potentially colonize other planets or moons unless adequately contained.

One example of the potential danger of bacterial contamination in space exploration is the case of the Mars Viking missions in 1976. As described in the book Planetary Protection: Policy Development and Implementation for Planetary Missions, “The Viking landers were sterilized before launch, but subsequent studies showed that some bacteria survived the sterilization process and could have contaminated Mars” (Race & Lupisella, 2020). These studies raise concerns about the possibility of introducing Earth’s microorganisms to other planets and potentially interfering with any native life that may exist there.

Furthermore, bacterial contamination can also pose a threat to astronauts themselves. The book, Astrobiology: A Short Introduction, notes that “Microbial contamination of life support systems onboard spacecraft poses a risk to crew health and performance” (Catling, 2014). This concept is particularly concerning for long-duration missions, such as those planned for future Mars missions, where astronauts exposure to these contaminants for extended periods.

Another example of threats was discovered on the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS is a unique environment that presents several challenges for the survival of microorganisms. Despite the stringent measures taken to prevent contamination, bacteria have been found on various surfaces in the ISS. These bacteria are of great interest to scientists as they may possess unique characteristics that could be exploited for various applications.

Several studies have reported isolating and identifying bacterial strains from various surfaces in the ISS. These bacteria belong to different taxonomic groups and possess diverse physiological and metabolic properties. For instance, a study by (La Duc, et al., 2007) reported the isolation of 1,271 bacterial strains from 8 locations in the ISS, including the dining table, toilet seat, and exercise platform. Most of these strains belonged to the phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. Another study by (Camilla Urbaniak, 2022) identified a novel bacterial species named Methylobacterium Ajmalii from an air filter in the ISS. This bacterium possessed unique metabolic capabilities that could be exploited for bioremediation purposes.

In March 2021, a new species, named Methylobacterium Ajmaline, associated with three new strains, designated IF7SW-B2T, IIF1SW-B5, and IIF4SW-B5, were reported to have been discovered, for the first time, on the International Space Station.

FIGURE 9-4 Methylobacterium

Source:  (Versalovic, 2011)

Bacteria in the ISS raises concerns about their potential impact on human health and equipment functionality. However, some studies have suggested that these bacteria may also have beneficial effects. For example, a study by (Kim, et al., 2013) reported that some bacterial strains isolated from the ISS possessed antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Additionally, some bacterial strains were found to produce extracellular polymeric substances that could be used for various applications, such as biofilm formation and drug delivery (Mikutta, Guggenberger, Haumaier, Schippers, & Baumgärtner, 2012).

The discovery of unknown bacterium strains in the ISS presents an exciting opportunity for further exploration and research. These bacteria may possess unique characteristics that could be harnessed for various applications, including bioremediation and drug delivery. However, their potential impact on human health and equipment functionality must be addressed, and more studies are needed to fully understand their properties and behavior in the ISS environment.

Bacterial contamination poses a significant threat to space exploration due to its potential impact on planetary environments and astronaut health. Further strict protocols for sterilization and planetary protection are necessary to ensure the safety and success of future space missions.

Fungi

Fungus is another type of biological threat that is in space. Fungi are microscopic organisms that feed on organic matter, such as plants and animals. Left unchecked, they can cause diseases such as athlete’s foot, ringworm, and cancer. Fungi can also reproduce quickly, making them difficult to contain or eliminate once they have established themselves in a new environment. Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that play essential roles in various ecosystems on Earth. However, they can also threaten space travel and exploration, as they are known to thrive in extreme environments, such as deserts and the deep sea. They can potentially contaminate spacecraft and planetary surfaces. According to the Encyclopedia of Microbiology, “Fungi are ubiquitous on Earth and can survive under extreme conditions of temperature, pH, radiation, and desiccation” (Rummel, Allton, & Morrison, 2011). This resilience makes them a formidable challenge for space exploration missions, where there should be a minimized risk of contamination.

One of the main concerns with fungal contamination is its potential to interfere with scientific experiments. Fungi can grow on equipment and instruments, affecting their accuracy and reliability. For example, fungal growth on optical lenses can cause distortion or obstruction of the images (Rummel, Allton, & Morrison, 2011). Fungal contamination can also affect the integrity of samples collected from other planets or moons, potentially altering, or destroying valuable data.

Another potential problem is fungi’s presence in spacecraft’s air filtration systems. The Journal of Applied Microbiology noted, “Air filtration systems are designed to remove particulate matter from the air, but they may not effectively remove fungal spores” (Howell, 2023). Even if a spacecraft is thoroughly cleaned before launch, it may still be contaminated with fungal spores that could grow and spread during the mission, increasing the potential for fungi to cause health problems for astronauts. Fungal spores, if inhaled, cause respiratory issues or allergies. Some species of fungi produce mycotoxins, which can be harmful if ingested or inhaled. In addition, prolonged exposure to fungi can weaken the immune system, making astronauts more susceptible to other infections.

Another concern is the potential for fungi to contaminate food supplies. The book Astrobiology: A Very Short Introduction explains that “Fungal contamination of stored food is a major problem on Earth and could be an even greater problem on long-duration spaceflights” (Catling, 2014). Fungal growth on food could render it inedible and release toxins that could harm astronauts.

In addition to these practical concerns, there is also a scientific interest in studying how fungi behave in space environments. However, as noted in the book Fungi in Biogeochemical Cycles, “The study of fungi in space is complicated by the need to prevent contamination of extraterrestrial environments with terrestrial microorganisms” (Gadd, 2006). Fungi can also pose a threat to planetary protection efforts. The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 requires that all space missions avoid harmful contamination of celestial bodies (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2023). If fungi were to contaminate another planet or moon, it could potentially introduce Earth-based life forms that could interfere with any native life that may exist there. Fungi contamination means strict protocols ensure that fungi experiments do not inadvertently introduce them into the studied environment.

The threat of fungal contamination is a significant challenge for space exploration missions. As the book Space Microbiology states, “The potential for contamination of extraterrestrial environments with terrestrial microorganisms is a critical issue for all space exploration missions” (Stutte, Flynn, & Acevedo, 2008). Careful planning and rigorous cleaning protocols must be in place to ensure that spacecraft and habitats remain free of fungal contamination; this will mitigate risk.

Viruses

”Viruses are entities whose genomes are elements of nucleic acid that replicate inside living cells using the cellular synthetic machinery and causing the synthesis of specialized elements that can transfer the viral genome to other cells” (Luria, Darnell, Baltimore, & Campbell, 1978). The newly developed discipline of studying viruses in space is called Astrovirology, a subdiscipline of astrobiology.

The possibility of viral contamination in space is a significant concern for space agencies and scientists. The presence of viruses in spacecraft or on extraterrestrial surfaces could pose a threat to astronauts’ health and compromise scientific research. Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and can spread through contact with infected individuals or objects. They can cause serious illnesses such as influenza, measles, and even HIV/AIDS if left unchecked. Viruses can also mutate quickly, making them difficult to treat or contain once introduced into a new environment.

One of the primary concerns regarding viral contamination is the potential for viruses to mutate in space. Research has shown that microgravity can alter the behavior of viruses, making them more virulent or resistant to treatment (Aunins, et al., 2018). Microgravity could lead to new, more dangerous strains that could be difficult to control. Additionally, harmless viruses on Earth could become dangerous in space due to changes in the immune system and other physiological factors.

Another concern is the potential for viruses to spread rapidly in the confined environment of a spacecraft. As humanity continues to explore space, the possibility of encountering viruses becomes a growing concern. While space is a sterile environment, spacecraft and other equipment sent into space are not as germ-free. These objects can carry microorganisms, including viruses, which could threaten astronauts and their missions. With close quarters and recycled air systems not working correctly, it could facilitate the transmission of viruses between crew members, potentially leading to an outbreak (Novikova, 2006). Furthermore, viruses are likely the most common cause of infectious disease attributed to enclosed environments. Close personal contact within a spacecraft or a space colony makes them ideal places to spread viral infections.

Astronauts experience a weakened immune system when they travel in space. One research study showed that Increased levels of stress hormones such as cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, coupled with a decreased cell-mediated immunity, contributed to the reactivation of latent herpes viruses in astronauts (Rooney, 2019). The study also included that viral reactivation was evident through the shedding of viral DNA in the body fluids of astronauts, and the viral load only increased with more time in space. As the viral load increased, it naturally triggered an increase of viral shedding by 60%, and with some subjects, the shedding increased by 96% (Rooney, 2019). Additionally, more than one virus reactivates at a time, potentially compounding the physiological ramifications of uncontrolled viral reactivations such as rashes, severe organ failures, and permanent loss of hearing and vision.

In addition to the risks posed by viruses carried from Earth, there is also the possibility of encountering unknown viruses in space. As we explore further into the cosmos, we may encounter microorganisms we have never faced before. New microorganisms could lead to the discovery of new valuable and helpful pathogens, but it also poses a risk if they are harmful.

To help mitigate the risks, a recent study by researchers using the ISS investigated the evolution of bacteriophages or phages (viruses that infect and kill potentially harmful bacteria) in microgravity conditions. The study was groundbreaking in that if phages can mutate in the micro-gravity environment, it could enhance the phage’s ability to attack or limit the bacteria’s ability to defend (Howell, 2023). The result is a new antibiotic that could help keep harmful bacteria subdued during long-distance space travel and increase the health of astronauts.

While the threat of viral contamination in space is a significant concern, scientists and space agencies mitigate these risks through scientific discovery, rigorous sterilization protocols, medical screening, and research into new antiviral treatments.

Radiation

Although radiation is not a threat from biology, prolonged exposure to radiation in space can significantly affect microorganisms and astronauts. One of the potential consequences is the development of genetic mutations that could lead to the emergence of new pathogens. The high-energy particles present in space can damage DNA, leading to changes in the genetic code that can alter the function of proteins and enzymes (Durante, 2008). These changes can have a range of effects, from benign to harmful, and potentially result in the emergence of new, pathogenic microorganisms.

Studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can induce mutations in various microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. For example, research has demonstrated that exposure to gamma radiation can cause mutations in the bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli) that lead to increased resistance to antibiotics (Catling, 2014). Other studies have shown that radiation exposure can increase the virulence of specific fungal pathogens, such as Aspergillus fumigatus (Blachowicz, et al., 2020).

The potential for radiation-induced mutation to lead to the emergence of new pathogens is a concern for space exploration, as astronauts are exposed to higher levels of radiation than they would experience on Earth. Astronauts on long-duration space missions risk developing infections due to weakened immune systems caused by prolonged exposure to radiation and other factors (Bijlani, Stephens, Singh, Venkateswaran, & Wang, 2021). In addition, microorganisms carried on spacecraft or present in space habitats could be exposed to these high radiation levels.

While there is still much to learn about the effects of radiation on microorganisms, prolonged exposure to high radiation levels can induce genetic mutations that could lead to the development of new pathogens. This underscores the need for careful monitoring and mitigation strategies to minimize the risks associated with radiation exposure during space exploration.

Extraterrestrial Pathogens

As space exploration advances, the possibility of encountering extraterrestrial life becomes more likely. While this may be an exciting prospect, it also presents potential dangers, particularly extraterrestrial pathogens. These pathogens could pose a significant threat to space travel and the health of astronauts. A primary concern with extraterrestrial pathogens is that they may be completely unknown to humans. We have yet to learn what organisms might exist in other worlds or what diseases they might provoke. This lack of knowledge makes preparing for potential infections and illnesses challenging.

Furthermore, extraterrestrial pathogens may be able to survive in environments that are hostile to human life. For example, some bacteria on Earth can survive in extreme temperatures and radiation levels. If similar organisms exist on other planets, they could infect humans who encounter them. According to one study, changes in human microbiology due to the conditions of space travel and the adaptation of earth-borne pathogens to alien environments could also lead to the emergence of modified microorganisms with vastly different pathogenic potentials (Mihai G. Netea , 2020).

Another concern is the potential for backward contamination of extraterrestrial pathogens in rock and dust samples. Carl Woese, a Nobel Prize–nominated biophysicist at the University of Illinois, once stated, “When the entire biosphere hangs in the balance, it is adventuristic to the extreme to bring Martian life here. Sure, there is a chance it would not harm; but that is not the point. Unless there is less chance that it might harm, one should not embark on such a course” (DiGregorio, 2001). Many researchers in the scientific community believe the odds are low that we would ever find life within our solar system. However, realizing our lack of understanding about pathogens from other worlds is essential.

Space agencies must take precautions when exploring other planets and celestial bodies to mitigate these risks. Samples must be cautiously handled and analyzed to the best of our ability so there are no false assumptions. Additionally, any samples from other planets must be carefully contained and studied in a secure laboratory environment. One of the safest ways to protect Earth from extraterrestrial pathogens would be a quarantine facility placed on the moon. A publication produced by the Lunar and Planetary Institute’s Workshop on Mars Sample Return in 1988 outlined how a facility on the moon would offer “significant advantages” over other locations (Davidson, 1988). It would offer a form of low gravity, vacuum, distance from Earth, and accessible communication.

In conclusion, while discovering extraterrestrial life would be groundbreaking, it also presents potential hazards in the form of extraterrestrial pathogens. As space exploration continues, we must take precautions to protect astronauts and Earth from these threats.

IMPACT OF BIOLOGICAL THREATS ON SPACE EXPLORATION

Health Risks to Astronauts

There are several health risks from biological threats that astronauts may encounter during space missions. These include bacterial infections, viral infections, fungal infections, allergic reactions, or even extraterrestrial pathogens. Bacterial infections are a significant concern as they can thrive in the microgravity environment of spacecraft and become resistant to antibiotics (M A Juergensmeyer, 1999). Viral infections are also a concern as they can spread rapidly in closed environments such as spacecraft. Fungal infections may also pose a threat as they can grow on surfaces and equipment within the spacecraft. Allergic reactions to environmental factors such as dust and pollen may also occur. The possibility of encountering extraterrestrial pathogens is also possible. However, how our immune system would react to extraterrestrial pathogens and cause health risks is still being determined.

The health effects of biological threats on astronauts can range from mild symptoms to severe illness or even death. Bacterial infections can cause various symptoms, including fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Viral infections can cause similar symptoms but may lead to respiratory problems and pneumonia. Fungal infections can cause skin irritations or more severe respiratory problems if inhaled. Allergic reactions can cause symptoms such as itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing (Ball & Evans, 2001).

One of the significant health risks associated with biological threats in space is the increased virulence of microbes due to microgravity conditions. According to a Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews study, microgravity can alter microbial gene expression, metabolism, and behavior, increasing virulence and antibiotic resistance (Wilson, 2007). Furthermore, spaceflight has been shown to alter immune function, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and decreased vaccine efficacy (Crucian, 2015), posing a significant threat to the health of astronauts, who may be more susceptible to infections while in space.

To realize the scope of health risks to astronauts, NASA began a three-part investigation of potential disease-causing microorganisms aboard the International Space Station (ISS) from 2015 to 2021. These studies are known as the Microbial Tracking-1 (MT-1), Microbial Tracking-2 (MT-2), and Microbial Tracking-3 (MT-3) experiments. The MT-1 experiment aimed to study the effects of microgravity on the virulence of microbes (Lang et al., 2017), while the MT-2 project focused on furthering the research of MT-1 by understanding how microgravity affects the immune system of astronauts (Urbaniak, 2022). Finally, the MT-3 project expands on past experiments by studying the response of microbial cells to the spaceflight environment and evaluating DNA structures for microbes cultured in spaceflight (Gilbert, 2022). All the studies collected samples from eight different surfaces, including air and water sources, using swabs, filters, and other collection devices. Samples taken directly from astronauts were also taken during the MT-2 experiment.

The MT-1 & MT-2 experiments revealed diverse microbial communities within the ISS environment. The study identified the potential source of microbial contamination from crew members and cargo shipments. Most bacteria and fungi detected from surfaces were derived from human skin but became unique due to the enclosed microgravity environment. The most prominent bacteria and fungi found were Staphylococcus, Cutibacterium, Streptococcus,  Haemophilus, and Malassezia. These pathogens cause various human health risks, including food poisoning, respiratory infections, and skin infections. The study also found that the pathogens had “resistance capabilities against 17 classes of drugs, many of which were broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as aminoglycosides, beta-lactams, fluoroquinolones, and tetracycline, all of which are part of the medical toolkit onboard the ISS” (Urbaniak, 2022). The results of the MT-3 experiments are currently still in progress.

FIGURE 9-5 Fungi from the Microbial Tracking-1 experiment

Source:  (Landau, 2016)

Lastly, the possibility of encountering extraterrestrial pathogens has been a topic of interest for scientists and researchers for many years. The immune system is crucial in defending the host against pathogenic invaders. However, how our immune system would defend against extraterrestrial pathogens is still being determined.

One health risk for astronauts is that their immune system may not recognize the extraterrestrial pathogens as foreign and fail to mount an effective defense. According to the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, “The immune system is particular and evolved to recognize and respond to Earth-based pathogens” (Muriel Gargaud, 2011). It is possible that our immune system will not recognize or have the appropriate defense against extraterrestrial pathogens due to their unique molecular structures.

While space exploration has brought us many advancements and discoveries, it poses significant health risks to astronauts. We do not understand how space travel alters a microbe’s ability to adapt in space or what risks alien organisms could have on astronauts. Continued research studying microbial threats in space is an essential area of research that can provide valuable insights into its effects on human health.

Impact on Spacecraft and Equipment

One of the most significant threats that impact spacecraft, and its equipment is heavy contamination from biofilms. Most materials used in spacecraft construction cannot resist biofilm formations and require continual maintenance and sterilization to prevent formation. These threats can range from a broad assortment of bacterial and fungal growths presenting failures in essential equipment and dangers to astronauts (Urbaniak, 2022). In this section, we will explore the impacts that biological threats can have on spacecraft and equipment during space travel.

Microbial contamination can occur in various ways, such as by introducing bacteria, viruses, or fungi from Earth or human sources. This contamination can lead to the growth of microorganisms called biofilm on surfaces within the spacecraft, which can cause corrosive damage to essential equipment and distort the reliability of tests and other experiments (V.B. Vasin, 1995). According to NASA, biofilms on the Mir space station and the ISS have been observed clogging air and water purification systems that provide astronaut life support (Figliozzi, 2013).

Corrosion is caused by a chemical reaction that occurs when metal or polymers are exposed to oxygen and moisture. Microorganisms can accelerate corrosion by producing acidic compounds that corrode metal and plastic surfaces at a higher rate (Lekbach, 2011). This corrosion can weaken equipment and structures within the spacecraft, potentially leading to equipment failure or structural damage. Aboard the Mir space station, colonies of organisms were also found growing on “the rubber gaskets around windows, on the components of space suits, cable insulations, and tubing, on the insulation of copper wires, and communications devices,” said Andrew Steele, a senior staff scientist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington working with other investigators at Marshall Space Flight Center (Bell, 2004).

Biological threats can also impact the performance of other electronic equipment within the spacecraft. Microorganisms can generate electrostatic charges that interfere with electronic signals and disrupt communication systems (Chandan K. Sen, 2020). This interference can cause malfunctions in critical systems, such as life support or navigation systems.

In conclusion, biological threats pose a significant risk to spacecraft and equipment during space travel. Contamination, corrosion, and interference with essential systems are just a few examples of the impacts that these threats can have. Space agencies need to take measures to prevent and mitigate the risks associated with biological threats to ensure the safety of astronauts and the success of space missions.

ECONOMIC IMPACTS

Space exploration has always been associated with various risks and challenges. A significant concern is potential biological threats that may arise during space missions. These threats can have severe economic impacts on space-based programs, affecting the immediate mission and long-term investments in space exploration. This section explores the economic implications of biological threats in space exploration, highlighting such risks’ potential costs and consequences.

1. Impact on Mission Costs:

Biological threats in space exploration can significantly impact mission costs. The presence of harmful microorganisms or pathogens onboard spacecraft can lead to contamination, resulting in a need for extensive decontamination procedures. These procedures require additional resources, including specialized equipment, disinfectants, and trained personnel, which can escalate mission costs. Moreover, the delay caused by decontamination processes may result in missed launch windows and rescheduling, further increasing expenses.

2. Investment Uncertainty:

The emergence of biological threats in space exploration introduces uncertainty in future investments. Potential contamination incidents could lead to public concerns and a loss of confidence in space agencies or private companies involved in space missions. Investors may hesitate to fund projects due to the perceived risks associated with biological threats. This uncertainty can hinder the flow of capital into space exploration programs, limiting their growth and development.

3. Impact on International Collaboration:

Biological threats in space exploration can strain international collaborations. In case of contamination incidents involving multiple countries or agencies, disputes may arise regarding responsibility and liability for the incident. Contamination incidents can lead to strained relationships and hinder future collaborative efforts. The breakdown of international partnerships can result in restricted access to shared resources and expertise, affecting the progress and cost-effectiveness of space exploration missions.

4. Public Perception and Support:

Biological threats in space exploration can influence public perception and support for space programs. Contamination incidents can generate adverse publicity, raising concerns about the safety of space missions. This negative perception may lead to a decline in public support and reduced funding for space exploration programs. A decrease in public funding could limit the resources available for research, development, and future missions.

5. Regulatory Compliance:

The presence of biological threats in space exploration requires adherence to strict regulatory guidelines and protocols. Space agencies and private companies must comply with international regulations to ensure crew members’ safety, prevent celestial body contamination, and protect Earth’s biosphere (Belz, 2005). These compliance measures add additional costs to space exploration programs, including implementing stringent sterilization procedures and ongoing monitoring.

Overall, biological threats in space exploration can have significant economic impacts. The costs associated with decontamination procedures, investment uncertainty, strained international collaborations, public perception, support, and regulatory compliance can all contribute to increased expenses and hinder the progress of space exploration programs.

MITIGATING BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

To protect against these potential biological threats, astronauts and scientists must take precautions when exploring new environments in space. This includes avoiding contact with unknown organisms whenever possible, sterilization techniques, quarantine measures, and wearing protective clothing whenever necessary. Additionally, astronauts need to monitor their health closely while in space so that any signs of illness or infection can be addressed quickly before it becomes a more significant problem for the mission team or other personnel on board the spacecraft.

Sterilization Techniques

Sterilization is crucial in space missions to prevent contamination of extraterrestrial environments with terrestrial microorganisms. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) continuously utilizes and develops various sterilization techniques to ensure that spacecraft and equipment sent to space are free of viable microorganisms. This section will discuss the different sterilization techniques used in modern space missions.

One of the approved sterilization techniques is dry heat sterilization. This method involves subjecting equipment to temperatures ranging from 160°C to 180°C for several hours. The high temperature kills all microorganisms, including bacterial endospores, and ensures that no viable organisms remain on the spacecraft (Belz et al., 2005).

Another widely used technique is chemical sterilization. This method involves using chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide or ethylene oxide to kill microorganisms instead of heating thermally sensitive electronics and hardware materials. Vapor phase hydrogen peroxide (VHP) is an alternative sterilization technique where equipment is placed in a sealed chamber with a vacuum, and the chemical is introduced into the chamber and kills all microorganisms present (Chen et al., 2013).

Finally, ultraviolet (U.V.) radiation is another method of sterilizing surfaces and equipment. The system is based on the Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation (UVGI) method of disinfection, where U.V. light, at sufficiently short wavelengths, is used to damage the DNA of microorganisms, rendering them unable to reproduce and kill microorganisms. However, this method is less effective against bacterial endospores (Eagan & Ridinger, 2017).

In closing, sterilization is critical in modern space missions to prevent contamination of extraterrestrial environments with terrestrial microorganisms. NASA has developed various sterilization techniques, including dry heat sterilization, chemical sterilization, and U.V. radiation. New sterilization techniques are being researched and will be used in future missions.

Quarantine Measures

Quarantine measures are essential in space travel and on Earth to avoid the lethality of alien biological threats. The risk of contamination from extraterrestrial life forms is a genuine concern for space agencies. To mitigate these risks, quarantine measures are implemented to prevent contamination from alien and earth-born biological threats. Quarantine measures include isolation procedures, decontamination processes, and strict crew health monitoring. There are several types of quarantine measures used for space travel:

• Pre-flight quarantine involves isolating astronauts from the general population before launch to prevent the spread of illness or infection.
• In-flight quarantine: includes isolating astronauts from each other and the rest of the spacecraft to prevent the spread of disease.
• Post-flight quarantine measures: isolating astronauts after returning to Earth to ensure they are not carrying harmful pathogens.
• Emergency quarantine procedures are designed to be implemented quickly in case of a medical emergency or disease outbreak on board a spacecraft. Emergency quarantine procedures may involve isolating affected individuals, decontaminating the spacecraft, or even aborting the mission if necessary. Isolation may be voluntary or involuntary, depending on the circumstances. Personal protective equipment (PPE) or Biological Isolation Garments have also been used to isolate an individual or be used by others to protect themselves (Dasch & O’Mara, 2018).

The primary quarantine measure is using a quarantine facility upon return to Earth. In 1964, federal officials and scientists assembled to discuss the possibility that microbes from the Moon or other worlds could potentially contaminate the Earth. Dr. Carl Sagan argued that lunar travelers might bring deadly organisms back with them that could theoretically destroy life on Earth (Carter, 2001). Congress shortly realized that rigorous quarantine protocols were needed to isolate astronauts, spacecraft, and lunar samples to prevent back-contamination from any possible lunar microorganisms into Earth’s biosphere. Congress authorized NASA to build the specially designed Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) in Houston, where returning astronauts, their spacecraft and all the samples of lunar material could be kept in strict quarantine and tested to determine if they posed a threat to the planet (Mars, 2021). The facility was completed in 1967 and was equipped with specialized air filtration systems, sealed dormitories, vacuum systems, a rare gas analysis system, a physical-chemical test area, vacuum glove boxes, and the radiation counting laboratory that was built 50 feet underground (Uri, 2021). Biological monitoring was also an essential part of the quarantine process. Samples of air, water, and surfaces within the laboratory were regularly tested for any signs of microbial growth or other contaminants. All waste products and equipment were also heavily sterilized before entering and leaving the facility.

Quarantine measures administered in the LRL were taken seriously. In a recent article by Dagomar Degroot, he explains, “LRL technicians agreed that if they were exposed to lunar contaminants and quarantined, they would not attempt to escape. If exposure killed them, their relatives could not claim their bodies. Rough plans drafted by NASA officials imagined that guards would seal the facility at gunpoint in case of a dangerous breach of lunar organisms that threatened to spill beyond the LRL. If all else failed, the entire facility and everyone inside it would be buried under a mountain of dirt and concrete (Scoles, 2023).

As space exploration advances, new quarantine measures must be developed to address new challenges. For example, future missions to Mars or other planets may require more extended periods of isolation and more extensive decontamination procedures due to the risk of contaminating these planets with Earth-based microbes (Keith, 2021). Modern policies are frequently being developed by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and their special Panel of Planetary Protection, whose primary objective is to develop, maintain, and promote the COSPAR policy and “to protect against the harmful effects of forward and backward contamination” (European Space Agency, 2023). Modernized facilities are also being constructed. In 2017, NASA’s Johnson Space Center unveiled Building 21, home of the Human Health and Performance Laboratory. Additionally, new technologies such as 3D printing and autonomous robots may reduce the risk of contamination by minimizing human contact with potentially contaminated surfaces.

USE OF PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Modern space missions require protective equipment against biological threats to ensure the safety of astronauts and prevent the spread of harmful microorganisms. The use of protective equipment has become increasingly important as space exploration expands, and missions become longer. In this section, we will discuss the types of protective equipment used in modern space missions and how they are utilized to protect against biological threats.

One of the primary forms of protective equipment used in space missions is the spacesuit. Spacesuits are designed to provide a sealed environment for astronauts, protecting them from the vacuum of space, extreme temperatures, and harmful radiation. In addition to these hazards, spacesuits also protect against biological threats. Spacesuits are equipped with air filters that remove contaminants from the air before astronauts breathe it in (NASA, 2023). The suits are also made from materials resistant to microbial growth, preventing harmful bacteria or virus accumulation.

Another form of protective equipment used in space missions is personal protective equipment (PPE). PPE includes items such as gloves, masks, and gowns that are worn by astronauts when managing potentially hazardous materials. PPE is essential for preventing the spread of harmful microorganisms between crew members or back to Earth (NASA, 2021). PPE is also used during medical procedures or experiments involving biological samples.

In addition to spacesuits and PPE, spacecraft are equipped with environmental control systems (ECS) that help maintain a clean and sterile environment. ECS systems filter and purify the air inside spacecraft, removing contaminants that could threaten crew members (National Research Council; Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems; Committee on Advanced Technology for Human Support in Space, 1997). These systems also regulate temperature and humidity levels to prevent the growth of microbes.

To further protect against biological threats, NASA and the COSPAR Panel on Planetary Protection have implemented strict protocols for overseeing biological samples and conducting experiments involving living organisms. These protocols include sterilization procedures for equipment and surfaces and quarantine measures for crew members returning from space (NASA et al., 2020).

In conclusion, modern space missions require various protective equipment to ensure the safety of astronauts and prevent the spread of harmful microorganisms. Spacesuits, PPE, ECS systems, and strict protocols for managing biological samples are essential to modern space exploration.

FUTURE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR GROWTH

The Role of Advanced Technologies

Space exploration has always been a subject of great interest for scientists and researchers. As humans venture farther into space, it becomes crucial to understand and overcome the challenges posed by extended periods of space travel. One area that holds immense potential is advanced biological technologies. By harnessing the power of biology, scientists can develop innovative solutions to ensure the well-being and sustainability of astronauts during long-duration missions. This section examines several advancements in biotechnology that enable the further development of innovative solutions for sustaining life in space.

1. CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats): is a gene-editing tool that allows scientists to make precise changes to DNA sequences. It has revolutionized the field of genetics and has numerous applications in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology. In 2017, a team of scientists launched the Genes in Space-3 mission to study the effects of microgravity on DNA using a MinION CRISPR device. The researchers used CRISPR to edit specific genes in the DNA samples and then sequenced the edited DNA to see if microgravity caused any changes. The experiment results showed that microgravity did not cause significant changes in DNA sequences compared to earth-based experiments (Sarah Stahl-Rommel, 2021). This opened a significant door for the future use of CRISPR technology for space exploration.

Using CRISPR technology in space has significant implications for future space exploration and colonization. It could be used to genetically engineer plants and animals to withstand the harsh conditions of space or to treat genetic diseases in astronauts. However, there are ethical concerns about using gene-editing technology in space and the potential risks and consequences. A common concern is the potential for unintended consequences. Gene editing is a relatively new technology, and much is still unknown about its long-term effects. It is possible that genetic modifications made for space travel could have unintended consequences that are not apparent until years or even decades later (William, 2022).

However, the Genes in Space-3 experiment demonstrated the feasibility of using CRISPR technology to study DNA mutations in microgravity. It opens new avenues for genetics research and has potential space exploration and colonization applications.

2. Synthetic phages: Synthetic phages are genetically engineered viruses designed to target specific bacteria strains by modifying their genetic material. Their ability to combat bacterial infections makes them a promising tool against serious threats posed by drug-resistant bacterial infections during long-duration space missions. Phages have been used as a natural alternative to antibiotics for decades; however, synthetic modifications allow phages to recognize and destroy specific bacteria while leaving beneficial microorganisms unharmed.

Numerous research efforts are underway to develop synthetic phages for space exploration. Scientists are focusing on improving their efficacy, stability, and delivery methods. Additionally, the “Phage-Evolution” study is currently being conducted on the International Space Station (ISS) to understand the impact of microgravity on synthetic phage performance (NASA, 2020).

3. Artificial Intelligence (A.I.) and Autonomous Systems: A.I. has emerged as a powerful tool in various fields, including space exploration and mitigating biological threats. The ability of A.I. systems to analyze vast amounts of data, make autonomous decisions, and adapt to changing environments makes them invaluable in space exploration domains. Robotics are also crucial for performing complex tasks in space exploration. From sample collection and analysis to remote sensing, maintenance, teleoperation, and planetary exploration, robots play a vital role in ensuring the safety of astronauts. A.I. coupled with robotics (autonomous systems) can push robotics further, perform experiments, repair equipment, and even assist astronauts. The use of autonomous systems reduces human risk while enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of space missions.

According to NASA, trusted autonomy within autonomous systems is a critical technology area necessary for the future of human and robotic space exploration (Bryan, 2020). A.I. has the potential to play a crucial role in combating biological threats in space but must be as dependable and capable as a human. By leveraging autonomous systems, scientists and researchers can enhance their ability to detect, analyze, and respond to threats without ever putting a human at risk. A.I. can be utilized to develop advanced algorithms that can quickly identify and classify various pathogens, monitor the spread of diseases, and predict their potential impact within a closed-loop system on space missions (Sanders, 2023). Furthermore, A.I. can aid in developing autonomous systems capable of performing medical procedures and administering treatments in space environments.

A workshop organized by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration on artificial intelligence, machine learning, and modeling applications in 2023 shared that a central goal of developing and employing autonomous, AI-supported bio-experimentation systems such as self-driving laboratories should be to generate longitudinal data (Sanders, 2023). The data gathered could inform autonomous health systems that provide decision support for crew health management during space missions.

4. Digital to Biological Converters: DBCs are innovative devices that convert biological sequence information from a transmitter location into biological material at a receiving unit. The system also has an assembly unit connected to the receiving unit, and the assembly unit assembles the biological entity according to the biological sequence information (Gill, 2021). DBCs utilize synthetic biology techniques to encode digital data into DNA sequences, which can then be synthesized and expressed in living organisms. This technology enables storing and retrieving vast amounts of information in a biologically stable format. DBCs can also be engineered to detect specific genetic signatures associated with known pathogens or harmful organisms. By leveraging their ability to convert digital information into biological material, DBCs enable rapid and targeted detection of potential threats.

The key to the technology is that the transmitting or receiving units can be present at remote locations on Earth (Gill, 2021). This presents itself to be a valuable application to space exploration. For example, if an autonomous system collects a sample that contains life on another planet, its biological sequence could be analyzed, digitalized, then sent to a receiving unit via broadcast on Earth, and the assembly unit could build the lifeform synthetically in a safe environment on Earth. This would eliminate variables within the transfer of the organism, such as cost, travel time, and exposure issues. On the other hand, if a receiving and assembly unit were available on a Mars colony, the DBC could digitally transmit a valuable protein as a vaccine sequence from Earth (Gill, 2021).

5. Quantum Computing: Quantum computing utilizes the principles of quantum mechanics to perform computations. Unlike classical computers that use bits to represent information as either a 0 or 1, quantum computers use qubits, which can exist in multiple states simultaneously due to a phenomenon called superposition (Giles, 2019). This property allows quantum computers to simultaneously process vast amounts of information, leading to exponential computational power. In recent years, researchers have explored the potential applications of quantum computing in various fields, including space exploration.

Quantum computers have the potential to significantly enhance data processing capabilities significantly, enabling faster analysis of large datasets. In the context of biological threat detection, this facilitates the rapid identification and analysis of pathogens or biological agents that pose risks to astronauts during space missions. Quantum computing can also provide robust simulation and modeling tools for predicting the behavior of biological threats in space environments. By simulating the interactions between pathogens and various environmental factors, scientists can gain insights into how these threats may evolve and adapt in space conditions (Giles, 2019). Quantum machine learning algorithms can improve the accuracy and speed of pattern recognition, enabling the detection of subtle biological threat indicators in large datasets (Ahsan, Luna, & Siddique, 2022). This can aid in identifying and mitigating potential risks during space exploration missions.

Quantum computing holds great promise for detecting and mitigating biological threats during space exploration. Its ability to process vast amounts of data, simulate complex systems, optimize designs, and enhance pattern recognition can revolutionize our ability to safeguard astronauts from potential biological hazards. However, further research and development are required to overcome technical challenges and realize the full potential of quantum computing in this domain.

CONCLUSIONS

Advanced biological technologies hold immense potential for space exploration. Today, serious researchers who devote energy to assessing realistic threats may consider advanced technology’s unrecognized but revolutionary evolution (Sincavage & McCreight, 2019). Understanding the effects of space travel on human physiology is crucial for developing effective countermeasures. Utilizing autonomous systems supported by A.I. could pave the way for creating sufficient environments before humans set foot on other worlds. Advancements in biotechnology that enable genetic modifications that enhance an organism’s adaptability to space environments could create advanced life support for long-duration missions. Bio-generative support using digitally transmitted systems offers a sustainable solution for long-duration missions. By harnessing the power of biology, scientists can pave the way for successful and sustainable space exploration.

COLLABORATIVE EFFORTS WITH INTERNATIONAL SPACE AGENCIES

As space exploration advances, international collaboration has become crucial to scientific progress and technological development. This section explores the future collaborative efforts between space agencies from different countries. It examines the importance of these partnerships, potential areas of collaboration, and the benefits they bring to the global space community.

International collaboration in space exploration is essential for several reasons. Firstly, it allows for sharing of resources, expertise, and technology among participating nations. This cooperation enables countries to pool their knowledge and capabilities, leading to more efficient and cost-effective missions. Secondly, collaboration fosters diplomatic relations and strengthens international ties, promoting peace and understanding among nations. Lastly, by working together, space agencies can tackle complex challenges that only some countries can overcome, such as long-duration space travel or the colonization of other planets.

There are numerous areas in which international space agencies can collaborate to further scientific knowledge and technological advancements. One key area is deep space exploration. By combining resources and expertise, agencies can jointly plan and execute missions to destinations beyond Earth’s orbit, such as Mars or the outer planets. Another area is the development of advanced detection systems. Collaborative efforts can lead to the creation of advanced sensor technologies that enable fast analysis of planetary bodies for life or biological threats. Additionally, international cooperation in satellite technology can enhance communication networks, weather forecasting, and planetary observation systems.

Collaboration between international space agencies yields several benefits for all participating nations. It promotes knowledge exchange and learning opportunities among scientists and engineers from different countries. This cross-pollination of ideas leads to innovation and the development of new technologies. Furthermore, collaborative missions allow for cost-sharing, reducing the financial burden on individual agencies and enabling more ambitious projects. Lastly, international partnerships foster cultural understanding and cooperation, contributing to peaceful relations among nations. The Space Treaty is an excellent example of collaboration which addresses that” the exploration and use of outer space shall be conducted for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind” (United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2023).

Future collaborative efforts between international space agencies hold great potential for advancing space exploration and benefiting humanity. By pooling resources, expertise, and technology, space agencies can tackle complex challenges and achieve scientific breakthroughs that would otherwise be unattainable. The importance of international collaboration in space exploration cannot be overstated, as it promotes knowledge exchange, cost-sharing, and peaceful relations among nations.

REFLECTION ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ADDRESSING BIOLOGICAL THREATS IN SPACE

Space exploration has already provided us with incredible scientific discoveries and technological advancements. From the first human landing on the moon to the exploration of Mars, these achievements have expanded our knowledge of celestial bodies and their composition. The future promises even more remarkable breakthroughs, with plans for manned missions to Mars and the establishment of permanent human settlements on other planets or moons within our solar system. The importance of addressing biological threats in space through space biology, advanced technologies, and the protection of life cannot be overstated in this endeavor.

Space biology plays a crucial role in unraveling the mysteries of life beyond Earth. The research helps us comprehend the fundamental principles of life. It contributes to medical advancements on Earth, such as developing new disease treatments and improving our understanding of aging processes. The knowledge gained from space biology research can also have practical applications in fields such as medicine and agriculture, leading to advancements that benefit life on our planet. As humans venture further into space, studying the effects of microgravity and radiation on living organisms becomes crucial for long-duration space missions and the potential colonization of other celestial bodies. Moreover, exploring the possibility of extraterrestrial life and understanding how life can adapt and survive in extreme environments expands our knowledge of the origins and diversity of life in the universe.

The continuation of developing advanced technologies is essential for pushing the boundaries of space exploration. These technologies, from synthetic biology to autonomous systems with unprecedented capabilities, enable us to explore further and gather more data than ever. These technologies have the potential to revolutionize our understanding of the universe, enhance mission capabilities, increase efficiency, and mitigate risks. However, balancing human involvement and machine autonomy is essential to ensure the best outcomes for scientific discovery and advancing humanity’s presence in space. Human astronauts bring unique qualities such as intuition, creativity, adaptability, and problem-solving skills that are difficult to replicate in machines. Therefore, a balanced approach that combines human and artificial intelligence strengths is crucial for future space missions’ success. Advanced technology helps pave the way for future missions to distant celestial bodies, potentially unlocking discoveries and expanding our understanding of the cosmos.

Protecting life, both on Earth and in space is a moral imperative. As we venture further into space, ensuring that our activities do not harm existing ecosystems or introduce harmful contaminants becomes increasingly essential, including implementing strict protocols to prevent the contamination of other celestial bodies with Earthly microorganisms, developing sustainable human colonization practices, and preserving cultural and scientific heritage. Furthermore, protecting life extends beyond our immediate concerns for astronauts and extraterrestrial organisms. It also encompasses our responsibility to safeguard Earth itself. Space exploration has revealed the fragility of our planet and highlighted the need for environmental preservation. By gaining a broader perspective from space, we realize the interconnectedness of all life on Earth and recognize the urgency to address biological processes, pathogens, and other threats to our planet’s health. As we embark on these journeys, we must prioritize protecting life in all its forms. By approaching space exploration with a deep sense of responsibility and a commitment to protecting life, we can ensure that our endeavors in space contribute positively to advancing and preserving life on Earth.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Space exploration poses unique challenges and risks, including the potential exposure to biological threats that could compromise the health and safety of astronauts. As humanity continues to venture into space, developing effective strategies to detect and mitigate such threats becomes crucial. This section provides recommendations for future research and development efforts that can be leveraged to enhance our ability to identify and counteract biological hazards during space exploration.

1. Enhancing Bio-surveillance Systems:

Bio-surveillance systems play a critical role in monitoring and detecting biological threats. Future research should focus on developing advanced biosensors capable of rapid and accurate identification of pathogens in real-time (Lederberg, et al., 2000). These biosensors could utilize innovative technologies such as nanotechnology or microfluidics to improve sensitivity, specificity, and portability. Additionally, integrating these biosensors with artificial intelligence algorithms can enhance their capability for early detection and prediction of potential outbreaks.

2. Developing Space-Specific Pathogen Detection Methods:

Traditional laboratory techniques for pathogen detection may not be suitable for space environments due to resource, time, and personnel limitations. Future research should explore the development of compact, automated, and self-contained pathogen detection systems specifically designed for use in space. These systems should be capable of analyzing various sample types, including air, water, surfaces, and bodily fluids, with minimal human intervention.

3. Establishing Onboard Diagnostic Capabilities:

Space missions often involve long durations with limited access to medical facilities. Future research should focus on developing onboard diagnostic capabilities that enable astronauts to diagnose and treat potential infections independently. Research can include developing portable diagnostic devices capable of performing multiplexed testing for various pathogens and integrating A.I. technologies to facilitate remote medical consultations.

4. Implementing Pre- and Post-Mission Monitoring:

For the health and safety of astronauts, it is essential to implement comprehensive pre- and post-mission monitoring protocols. Future research should explore the development of non-invasive monitoring techniques that can assess an astronaut’s immune system function, microbial composition, and overall health status. These techniques could include the analysis of biomarkers in bodily fluids, such as saliva or urine, to identify potential infections or alterations in the immune response.

5. Conducting Long-Term Microbiome Studies:

The human microbiome plays a crucial role in maintaining health and preventing infections. However, space exploration can disrupt the average microbial balance within the human body. Future research should conduct long-term microbiome studies on astronauts to understand how space travel affects their microbial composition and how these changes may contribute to increased susceptibility to infections. Such studies can provide insights into potential interventions or countermeasures to maintain a healthy microbiome during space missions.

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