Spelling as a Developmental Process

When children are surrounded by print, they often try to imitate what they see.  Beginning writers use letter and word approximations (scribbles), but with repeated exposure to words through read alouds, dictated stories, and phonemic awareness and phonics work, children’s approximations become closer to conventional spelling.

Orthography is the study of the correct spelling of words according to established usage. When children become orthographers, they don’t just memorize words, which has been the traditional method of spelling instruction, but rather they learn to recognize patterns and rules of words.

This invented spelling is an important part of developing as a reader and writer and research has shown that children move through five stages of word knowledge that include both specific features of words and the order in which children learn these features (Gentry & Gillet, 1993; Read, 1975; Templeton, 2011).  Although teachers and parents are sometimes concerned that invented spelling reinforces spelling errors, research has shown that, with instruction, invented spelling progresses toward conventional spelling and by encouraging children to write with their “best guesses”, they are more motivated to write; will write about a wider range of topics; and will experiment with words.

As children use their best judgment to write words based on patterns they know, it shows their phonemic awareness (recognition of sounds); phonics knowledge (sound/symbol relationship); and phonology (patterns). Understanding a child’s developmental stage and building from it provides targeted instruction in a child’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and increases a child’s word knowledge and conventional spelling. 

When teachers consider spelling as a developmental process, the stages of word knowledge are predictable, but the timing of movement through the stages can vary greatly for each child.   This is a dramatic shift of understanding spelling instruction from what many of our children’s parents experienced in school and it is important to educate families about the process and matching instruction.

Emergent or Pre-Communicative

Pre-school-aged children (ages 3-6) write with scribbles, random letters, and letter-like forms.  At this stage, children don’t recognize the sound/symbol relationship and are generally imitating the process of writing. Often only the child can “read” the writing. 

In the early part of the stage, the writing may be scattered across the page, but toward the end of this stage, children begin to understand directionality and write left to right and top to bottom (See Image 1.1).  Uppercase letters tend to dominate this stage. The movement to the next stage happens when children learn the alphabetic principle that letters represent sounds in a systematic way and that words are made up of letters. 

Children show that they recognize several conventions of writing during this stage and teachers need to recognize the features children know and build from them. Some features that children begin to recognize are:

• • Difference between writing and drawing – When asked to draw or write, children are able to tell the difference between picture drawing and writing.
  • Directionality – Writing left to right and top to bottom. Some begin to align their writing horizontally.
  • Forms of letters – By the end of the stage, scribbles turn into recognizable letters; often the upper case.
  • Letter/Sound recognition – For important or commonly used letters, children will use the letter appropriately. For example, they will use the first letter of their name or M for mom and D for dad.

Letter Name-Alphabetic or Semiphonetic

When children enter school, more formal instruction in phonemic awareness and phonics begins (kindergarten to second grade or ages 5-8).  Children begin to use letters to represent whole words and move to recognizing individual sounds within words and representing the sounds with letters.

Early writing in this stage is also called semiphonetic spelling because only some of the sounds are represented in the word.  Typically vowels are omitted from words and some sounds are misrepresented such as  /w/ is represented with a Y or /p/ is represented with a B.

In the middle of this stage, children generally recognize and represent the beginning and end sounds of words, especially consonants. Long vowels begin to make an appearance, though children will often omit the silent –e. High-frequency words are more often spelled correctly such as have, you, or love.

Later in this stage, the CVCe pattern is correctly used most of the time and short vowels are more consistently correct. However, homophones may be misused (rane instead of rain). Spelling becomes more phonetic, as children are able to hear and represent the individual sounds in blends and digraphs. When children begin to recognize the preconsonantal nasals, (-mp as in stamp/slump/stomp or –nd as in grand/spend/stand), they are typically moving into the next stage (Henderson, 1990).

Children show that they recognize several conventions of writing during this stage and teachers need to recognize the features children know and build from them. Some features that children consistently use in this stage are:

• • The alphabetic principle – (letter/sound relationship and that words are made up of letters)
  • Consonants
  • Short vowels and the CVCe pattern
  • Consonant blends and digraphs

Within Word Pattern or Phonetic

Typically occurring in first through third grade (ages 7-9), children in the within word pattern stage will consistently and automatically spell one-syllable, short vowel words. In this stage, they begin to recognize other long vowel patterns and r controlled vowels. Children are also able to recognize and use diphthongs, or a sound made by combining two vowels that begin with one vowel sound and moves toward another.

At this stage, children are able to analyze words and think about patterns in spelling, although they may apply the wrong pattern.  For example, a child spelling team as teme recognizes the need for a long vowel pattern and applies the CVCe pattern rather than the ea digraph. Or, a child might use another common pattern, such a the ow in glow, to spell gowl instead of goal. Children may also misplace letters within a word such as thraot instead of throat or gril instead of girl.

Children show that they recognize several conventions of writing during this stage and teachers need to recognize the features children know and build from them. Some features that children consistently use by the end of this stage are:

• • A variety of long vowel patterns
  • r-controlled vowels
  • More complex consonant patterns (VCC;
  • An awareness of homophones
  • Other vowel patterns and diphthongs

Syllable and Affixes or Transitional

This stage typically spans upper elementary and middle schools grades (ages 9-14). As the label for this stage indicates, children in the syllable and affix stage of spelling are able to recognize and use syllabication in their spelling.  During this stage, children begin to use syllable patterns such as double consonants at the syllable juncture. For example, funny is divided into two syllables between the two ns to be fun/ny.

Common ambiguous vowel patterns are more consistently used properly. Children learn to use affixes more consistently, but children may confuse spellings when syllables meet. For example, children might spell stopped as stoped or cutting as cuting. With greater analytical ability, children recognize how prefixes and suffixes change the tense or meaning of a word. They also are able to use and recognize homonyms.

Children show that they recognize several conventions of writing during this stage and teachers need to recognize the features children know and build from them. Some features that children consistently use by the end of this stage are:

• • Affixes – prefixes and suffixes – and recognize how affixes change the meaning/tense of words
  • Compound words
  • Syllabication – most syllables are represented in multisyllabic words and children recognize typical rules and patterns
  • Homophones and homonyms

Derivational Relations or Conventional

The final stage in the spelling continuum, the derivational relations state, might begin in grade 4 or 5, but usually happens through middle school, high school, or for some students, in college.  As adults continue to read and write, they develop an understanding of words needed for their jobs and careers. 

At this stage, students are spelling most words with 90% or greater accuracy. More formal instruction with Greek and Latin roots and the etymology of words is appropriate at this stage.

Children show that they recognize several conventions of writing during this stage and teachers need to recognize the features children know and build from them. Some features that children consistently use:

• • Alterations in consonants when adding endings – leaf to leaves; office to official; authentic to authenticity
  • Alterations in vowels when adding endings –; wise to wisdom; preside to president
  • Greek and Latin roots and root words
  • Etymology

Spelling Generalizations

For the full text of the poem, click here https://iuuk.mff.cuni.cz/~andrew/EAP/PronunciationPoem.pdf

Based on that poem, it may seem that the English language has very few rules to guide spelling, but there are a few generalizations that can guide explicit spelling lessons.  Some of the most common generalizations are listed below with examples.

Some Helpful Spelling Generalizations

i before e – i before e, except after c. Except if it sounds like /a/ as in neighbor and weigh

When i and e are together in the same syllable, i usually precedes e

             believe     thief     friend     pierce     achieve

Exception – When i and e follow a c, or when the ei sounds like /a/

            receive     ceiling     receipt     neighbor   sleigh

u after q – When q is in a word, u comes after

          queen     quick     antique     plaque     equation

e after v in the end – When v is at the end of a word, e follows

          valve     remove     have     live     believe     

Adding suffixes to words that end in y – When you add a suffix that starts with e (-er, –ed, –est, -es); or -ly to a word that ends in y, the y usually changes to i

• • Cry – cried; crier; cries
  • Dry – dried; drier; dries; drily
  • Baby – babies; babied; babies
  • Busy – busied; busier; busiest; busily
  • Happy – happier; happiest; happily

However, y does NOT change when the suffix is -ing

• • Cry – crying
  • Dry – drying
  • Baby – babying

Doubling final consonants – When a one-syllable word ends in a consonant, double the final consonant when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel

• • Top – topping; topped; topper
  • Grip – gripped; gripping; gripper
  • Hop – hopped; hopping; hopper

Drop final e when adding suffix – When  a word ends with a silent e, delete the e to add a suffix that begins with a vowel

• • Use – using; used
  • Save – saved; saver; saving
  • Love – loved; lover; loving; lovable

Keep the e if the suffix begins with a consonant – Keep the final e if the suffix begins with a consonant

• • Care – careless; careful
  • Safe – safely; safeness
  • Hope – hopeless

Plurals – Add s to most nouns and verbs

         cats  dogs  tables  plays  students  cars

Add -ed when the word ends with -ch, -sh, -x, -s, or -z

        churches   dishes   foxes   classes   quizzes

For words ending with f, change f to v and add –es

    leaf/leaves   grief/grieves   thief/thieves    sheaf/sheaves

   relax/relaxes   wax/waxes   reach/reaches  fish/fishes

Spelling Instruction

Traditionally, spelling instruction consisted of a class list of words (sometimes thematic) that was handed out on Monday with a test on Friday.  There may have been a spelling workbook or worksheets completed over the course of the week that highlighted structural aspects of the words or word searches.

When we consider spelling as a developmental process and focus on differentiating instruction to meet the needs of all learners, it is clear that spelling instruction needs to be both individualized and dynamic.

In addition, spelling uses four kinds of knowledge:

• • phonological (sound)
  • visual
  • morphemic (meaning and word families)
  • etymological (word origins)

Therefore, learning to spell needs to be a multistrategy, multisensory process.

Integrated Spelling Support

Spelling support can be integrated throughout the day by using the following practices

Word Walls – Using a bulletin board, whiteboard, or pocket chart, Word Walls are a resource for children to view, copy, and use words.  Frequently teachers will use different types of Word Walls in the room. 

• High-Frequency Words – In early grades, there might be a high-frequency word wall drawn from a Dolch Word list  or Fry Word List.
• Content Area Words – Across the grade levels, the content area word wall provides the spelling/vocabulary words for current topics of study.  For example, a math word wall might include: sum, subtraction, addition, and equal.
• Word Family Words – Word families are groups of words with the same endings (rhyming).
• Literature-Based Word Wall – Vocabulary instruction is an important part of read alouds and guides/shared reading.  Literature-based word walls provide a record of the words studied in these activities.
• Seasonal Word Walls – Frequently teachers will use part of the morning meeting to review the calendar and weather.  A smaller seasonal word wall can be used to prompt children in their discussion and later writing.
• Individual Word Walls – Children can create their own individual word walls of words they most frequently need.  This can be done in the back of their Writer’s Notebook or using a file folder.

There are many other themes for word walls. However, there are some key guidelines for the creation and use of word walls that will make them more effective.

Making the Most of Word Walls

1. Be selective about the words that go on the word wall. Too many words will overwhelm children, but too few will not be helpful.
2. Teach the word before it goes on the wall.  Children need to see, hear, say, and write the word to move it into their own vocabularies.
3. Include illustrations with words to help children find and connect to the words (especially useful for English Language Learners).
4. Include translations of words, if possible, for your English Language Learners. 
5. Make the word wall interactive and accessible for children. Some teachers use velcro so children can take the word from the wall to their desks. Other teachers include popsicle sticks or notecards with the word.

Spelling Strategies – While children are writing, they may need reminders of the various spelling strategies they have to spell words.  Many teachers have an anchor chart of poster that highlight these strategies:

• Sound it out
• Spell by analogy
• Apply  knowledge of affixes
• Check a dictionary

Spelling Instruction

As orthographers, children need support in recognizing and using spelling patterns – in other words, they need instruction.  When teachers view spelling as a developmental process, they determine the spelling stages of their children and build lessons and activities at children’s instructional levels, frequently using small group instruction or centers.

The first step in spelling instruction is assessment, which will be detailed in the next section. Once teachers can group students with similar needs, they can target their instruction to meet those needs. 

Teachers use a variety of spelling instructional strategies and activities to maintain children’s interest in studying with words. Research has indicated that a balance of spelling instructional approaches address different aspects of the English language ( Henry 1988). Some of the more frequently used practices are detailed below.

Words Their Way – A developmental spelling, phonics, and vocabulary program designed by Donald R. Bear, Marcia Invernizzi, Shane Templeton, and Francine Johnston (1996), Words Their Way (WTW) uses word sorts to actively engage children in interacting with words but sorting them into different categories. The types of sorts that WTW focuses on include:

• • Sound sorts
  • Pattern sorts
  • Concept sorts
  • Spelling-meaning sorts

Children are provided word lists based on their development spelling stage and they work with the words throughout the week.

Making Words and Making Big Words – Developed by Jim and Pat Cunningham (1992) and refined by Pat Cunningham and Dottie Hall (1994), children use letter cards, tiles, or manipulatives to “make words” starting from simple two and three-letter words and progressing to more difficult words.  Phonics skills are used to make and re-make words by switching out letters. There is also a focus on word families. After children make their words, they may copy them unto a list and complete sorting activities.

Explicit Instruction of Spelling Generalizations –  Although there are many exceptions to spelling “rules” there are some generalizations that work most of the time. Teachers should introduce the generalization when it is appropriate (during a read aloud or writing conference) and provide examples. Many teachers post spelling generalizations around the room for children to use.

Word Games and Activities – There are a variety of games and activities that will engage children in becoming aware of letter patterns in words.  For example, word ladders; pyramid spelling; Elkonin boxes; word dominos; matching; and flip books all provide children with opportunities to reinforce letter patterns and word study. Not to mention the plethora of computer apps and games.

Commercial programs – Many basal programs include a spelling component to instruction.  Basal-based spelling is typically integrated in the shared reading or whole group instructions. Frequently spelling worksheets or a workbook is provided also. 

There are also a variety of other spelling programs that provide word lists and spelling activities.  A few of the more common ones include:

• • SRA Spelling Mastery – This is a Direct Instruction (DI) program that can be used individually or in small and whole groups with explicit instruction and includes lessons on phonology, morphology, and whole word.
  • Pearson’s Everyday Spelling – A K-8 spelling program that focuses on the most frequently misspelled words and errors. Can include a handwriting component.
  • SpellingCity.com – An online spelling and vocabulary program that uses individually paced games and activities. Teachers create or select lists of words to assign to children.

Spelling Assessment

Spelling tests on Friday are not the only way to assess children’s spelling ability.  Like any other assessment, you need to decide the purpose of the assessment so you can gather the data you need.  Sometimes it may be diagnostic to determine the spelling stage; or progress monitoring to adjust instruction; or possibly summative to judge the effectiveness of instruction. This chapter will provide an overview of a variety of spelling assessments that can be used across the learning process.

Monster Test – Developed by Dr. Richard Gentry (2004), the monster test uses a 10-word list to assess children’s developmental stage in spelling.  It is quick to administer and can be used for progress monitoring.

Qualitative Spelling Inventory – Used by the Words Their Way (WTW) program, the qualitative spelling inventory provides a 25-word list at three different levels – Primary Spelling Inventory (PSI); Elementary Spelling Inventory (ESI); and Upper-Level Spelling Inventory (USI). Teachers use the feature guide to analyze children’s word attempts to determine the spelling stage. This can be used for progress monitoring throughout the year.

Developmental Spelling Assessment (DSA) – Very similar to the WTW Spelling Inventories, DSA was developed by Dr. Kathy Ganske’s word study program Word Journeys and is recommended to be used three times during the year to adjust word study groups.

Analysis of Children’s Writing – Analyzing children’s uncorrected writing provides an authentic opportunity to recognize what spelling generalizations children know and use.  Plus, analyzing errors indicate the developmental stage. There are numerous tools teachers can use to systematically observe children’s writing, such as the Qualitative Spelling Checklist used with the WTW program; Spelling in Use by Lester L. Laminack and Katie Wood; or a spelling rubric.

Cloze Words – Children are given a word with some letters missing.  They need to fill in the missing letters.

Review and Questions to Ponder

Questions to Ponder

1. Do you consider yourself a good speller? What were your experiences with spelling in school?  How might this influence your spelling instruction as a teacher?
2. In your practicum placement, consider all the ways that word study is integrated throughout the day – both the informal and incidental instructional moments and the intentional scheduled activities.  How are the various levels of word knowledge (phonological, morphological, visual, and etymological) used throughout the day?

References

Bear, D., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S., Johnston, F. (2004). Words their way: Word study for phonics, vocabulary and spelling instruction (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Gentry, R. J. & Gillet, J. W. (1993). Teaching kids to spell. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Gentry, J. R. (2004). The science of spelling. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Henderson, E.H. (1990). Teaching spelling (2nd Ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Read, C. (1975). Children’s categorization of speech sounds in English. Urbana, IL: NCTE Research Report No. 17.

Henry, M. K. (1988). Beyond phonics: Integrated decoding and spelling instruction based on word origin and structure. Annals of Dyslexia, 38, 258–275.

Templeton, S (2011). Teaching spelling in the English/language arts classroom. In D. Lapp & D. Fisher (Eds.), The handbook of research on teaching English language arts (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge.

Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.