Abbreviations & Acronyms

Abbreviations, Acronyms and Definitions  [1] [2]

 

The following terms are standard to the UAS / CUAS  /UUV /SPACE industries, general literature, or conferences on UAS/UAV/Drone/UUV/ SPACE systems. A majority of the technical abbreviations come from  DRONE DELIVERY OF CBNRECy – DEW WEAPONS Emerging Threats of Mini-Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption (WMDD); (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022) (Nichols R. K. et al., Unmanned Aircraft Systems in the Cyber Domain, 2019) and (Nichols R.  et al., Counter Unmanned Aircraft Systems Technologies, and Operations, 2020) (Nichols & et al., 2020) (Nichols R.et al., Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in Cyber Domain: Protecting USA’s Advanced Air Assets, 2nd Edition, 2019) (Nichols R. K., Chapter 14: Maritime Cybersecurity, 2021) (Nichols & Sincavage, Disruptive Technologies with Applications in Airline, Marine, and Defense Industries, 2021) (Nichols & Ryan, Unmanned Vehicle Systems & Operations on Air, Sea & Land, 2020) (Adamy D. L., Space Electronic Warfare, 2021) (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)

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ABM             Anti-ballistic missile

A/C                Aircraft (Piloted or unmanned) also A/C

ACAS            Airborne Collision Avoidance System

ACE               Agile Combat Employment

A/CFD           Aircraft Flood Denial Jamming

A/C FD          Aircraft flood denial

ACOUSTIC    Detects drones by recognizing unique sounds produced by their motors

ACSC             Air Command and Staff College

A/D                Attack / Defense Scenario Analysis

ADS               Air Defense System (USA) / Area Denial System

ADS-B           Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast systems

AE                  Autonomous Employee

AFFORGEN  Generation Models based on the AFFORGEN (Air et al. Generation)

AFMC            Air Force Material Command

AFRL             Air Force Research Lab

AFWI            Air Force Wargaming Institute

A-GPS           Assisted GPS

AGL               Above ground level

AGV               Automated Guided Vehicles

AHI                Anomalous Health Incidents

AI                   Artificial intelligence: “1. a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behavior in computers,

                       and 2: the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior.” (Merriam-Webster, 2020)

AI                   is the ability of machines and technological devices, programs, and creations to sense, process, learn, and adapt to information                             from their surroundings. (Wright, 2020)

AirTags         Bluetooth tracking devices

AIS                 Automated Identification System for Collision Avoidance

AMAZE         EU’s Additive Manufacturing Aiming Towards Zero Waste and Efficient Production of High-Tech Metal Products Project

AMF              Access and mobility management function

AMS              Autonomous Mobile Sword (SCREAMER) uses sound to disrupt the brain before cutting the enemy to pieces.

AO                 Area of Operations

AOA              Angle of Arrival of signals to GPS receivers / Angle of Attack

AOC              Air Operations Center

AOCS            Cooperative Attitude and Orbit Control System takeover

APC               Armored personnel carrier

APDS             Armor-piercing discarding sabot projectile

APFSDS         Armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot projectile

APHIS             Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

APP                 Automated Parks Projects

AR                   Augmented reality

ARW               Anti-radiation weapons

ASAT               Anti-satellite weapons / Anti-satellite missile system

ASM                Attack surface management

ASREN            Association of Geospatial Industries, the Arab States Research and Education Network

ASW                Anti-Satellite Weapons

ATC                  Air Traffic Control / Air Traffic Control Signals

ATCC               Air Traffic Control Center

ATM                Air Traffic Management

ATS                  Air Traffic Services

ATSAW           Air Traffic Situational Awareness

AU                   Air University

AUiX               AU Innovation Accelerator’s (AUiX) Wargame Lab Chief (author C1 service)

AUV                Autonomous underwater vehicle

AWC               Air War College

Azimuth         The angle between true North and the treat location, in a plane at the satellite perpendicular to the vector from the SVP                                         [Sub-vehicle Point]

Bandwidth     is Defined as the Range within a band of wavelengths, frequencies, or energy. Think of it as a range of radio frequencies                                         occupied by a modulated carrier wave assigned to a service over which a device can operate.  Bandwidth is also a capacity for                               data transfer of electrical communications systems.

B&B                Branch & bound

B.C.                 Before Christ

BC                   Ballistic Coefficient

BEAR              Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot

BEC                 Bose-Einstein condensate

BFM                Basic Fighter Maneuvers

BHTS               Balanced Humanitarian Technology Security

Black Swan    Black Swan Event- A black swan is unpredictable beyond what is. Normally expected of a situation and has potentially severe                              consequences. Black swan events are characterized by their extreme rarity, severe impact, and widespread insistence; they were                          evident in hindsight. (Black Swan Definition, 2020)

BLOS               Beyond line-of-sight

Boson             Fundamental particles that have a spin in integer values (0,1,2..)

BRA-KET       QM notations: In QM, [bra-ket] notation is a powerful mathematical formalism used to describe the states of QSs and their                                    operations. The notation consists of two elements: the “bra” ⟨ψ| and the “ket” |φ⟩, where ψ and φ represent quantum states                                  using Greek letters. The bra-ket notation elegantly captures the concept of duality between vectors and dual vectors                                              (or “bra” and “ket” vectors), allowing for intuitive representation and manipulation of quantum states and operators.

BPAUV           Battlespace Preparation Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

BrO                 bromine oxide

BSL-4             Biosafety Level #

BTWC            Biological & Toxin Weapons Convention

BVLOS           Beyond Visual Line-of-Sight operations

BVR                Beyond Visual Range

BW                 Biological weapons

BYOD              Bring your device

C/No               Carrier to Noise ratio

c                       Speed of light ~ (3 x 108 m/s) [186,000 miles per sec] in vacuum named after Celeritas, the Latin word for speed or velocity.

CLAW              Combat Laser assault weapon

cs                      speed of sound (344 m/s) in air

C2 / C2W         Command and Control / Command and Control Warfare

C3                     Command, control, communications

C3I                   Command, control, communications, and Intelligence

C4                    Command, control, communications, and computers

C4I                   Command, control, communications and computers, intelligence

C4ISR              Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance & Reconnaissance

C4ISTAR         Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and Reconnaissance

C5I                   Command, control, communications, computers, Collaboration & Intelligence

CA                   Collision Avoidance / Clear Acquisition (GPS) / Cyber Assault (aka CyA)

C/A                  GPS Satellite Course Acquisition unique code

CAA                 Control Acquisition cyber attack

CAMS              Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service

CAS                 Close Air Support / Common Situational Awareness

Cauchy Sequence is a sequence where the terms become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence progresses.

CBRN             Chemical, Biological, Radiation & Nuclear critical infrastructure facilities

CBRNE           Chemical, Biological, Radiation, Nuclear & Explosives attacks essential facilities of infrastructure or assets

CBRNECy       Chemical, Biological, Radiation, Nuclear, Explosives &  Cyber-attacks on critical infrastructure facilities or assets

CBW               Chemical, Biological Weapons

CCC                  Circular Cross-Correlation in classical GPS receivers

CC&D              Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception

CCTV               Closed Circuit Television

CD                   Collective detection maximum likelihood localization approach (Eichelberger, Robust Global Localization using GPS and Aircraft                             Signals, 2019)

CD                  Charge diameters

Cd                   Drag coefficient

CDC                Center for Disease Control

CDMA            Code division multiple access protocol

CD                  Collective detection maximum likelihood localization approach (Eichelberger, 2019)

CE                   Circular economy

CEA                Cyber-electromagnetic activities

CEP                Circular error probable

CES                 Consumer Electronics show

CETC              Chinese Electronics Technology Group Corporation

CEW               Cyber electronic warfare / Communications electronic warfare

CGA                Coast Guard Administration – Singapore

CFSPH            Center for Food Security and Public Health (CFSPH)

CHAMP          Counter-Electronics High Power Microwave Advanced Missile Project

CHATGPT      AIs referred to as GPTs (Generative Pre-Trained Transformer)

CHS                Cyber-Human Systems

CHUCK          Comprehensive for Combat Knowledge

CIA                 Confidentiality, Integrity & Availability ( standard INFOSEC paradigm)

CI / CyI           Critical Infrastructure / Cyber Infiltration

CIA                 Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability / Central Intelligence Agency

CIRCIA           Cyber Incident Reporting for Critical Infrastructure Act

CIS                  Critical Infrastructure Sector

CISA               Critical Infrastructure Security Agency

CJNG              Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación

CLC                Chief Master Sergeant Leadership Course

CM / CyM      Countermeasure / Cyber Manipulation

CMADS          China’s Microwave Active Denial System

C/NA              Communication / Navigation Aid

CNA               Computer network attack

CND               Computer network deception

CNE                Computer network exploitation

CNO               Computer network operations

CNS                Central nervous system

CO-ASAT       Co-orbital (Co-ASAT) missile system

COMINT        Communications intelligence

COMJAM       Communications Jamming

COMINT        Communications Intelligence

COMSEC       Communications Security

CONOP(S)     Concepts of Operations

CONUS           Continental United States

CONV             Convergent Technology Dynamics

CONV-CBRN Convergent Technology Dynamics – Chemical, Biological, Radiation & Nuclear

COP                Common operating picture

COTS              Commercial off-the-shelf

CM                  Apollo Command Modules

CMB               Cosmic Microwave Background (Radiation)

CN                   Core network

CNPC              Control and non-payload links

CPB                 Charged particle beam

CPS                 Cyber-physical systems

CR                   Conflict Resolution / Close range / Cyber Raid (aka CyR)

CSAF              Chief of Staff of Air Force

CSD                Circuit switched data

CSI                  Crime scene investigation

CSIS                Center for Strategic and International Studies

CT                   Counter-Terrorism / Counter-Terrorism Mission

CTN                Course -Time Navigation, A-GPS technique, drops the requirement to decode the HOW timestamps from the GPS signals.

CTN                Refers to a snapshot receiver localization technique measuring sub-millisecond satellite ranges from correlation peaks, like                                   classical GPS receivers.

C-UAS            Counter Unmanned Aircraft Systems (defenses/countermeasures)

CUAV             Counter Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle (defenses/countermeasures)

CUES              Code for unplanned encounters at sea

CW / CyW     Cyber Warfare

CWC               Chemical Weapons Convention

CWMD           Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Community

CYBER WEAPON: Malicious Software and IT systems that, through ICTS networks, manipulate, deny, disrupt, degrade, or destroy targeted                               information systems or networks. It may be deployed via computer, communications, networks, rogue access points, USBs,                                   acoustically, electronically, and airborne/underwater unmanned systems & SWARMS. Alternatively, cyber weapons:

  1. A campaign that may combine multiple malicious programs for espionage, data theft, or sabotage.
  2. A stealth capability that enables undetected operation within the targeted system over an extended time.
  3. An attacker with apparent intimate knowledge of details for the workings of the targeted system.
  4. A particular type of computer code to bypass protective cybersecurity technology.

DA-ASAT      Direct Accent or Hit-to-Kill (DA-ASAT) missile system

DAF                Department of the Air Force

Danger Close

Definition www.benning.army.mil/infantry/magazine/issues/2013/May-June/Myer.html Nov 14, 2013 – 1) Danger close is included in the

“method-of-engagement” line of a call-for-fire request to indicate that friendly forces are close to the target. … Danger close is a term

that is exclusive from risk estimate distance (RED) although the RED for 0.1 percent PI is used to define danger close for aircraft delivery.

Pi = Probability of incapacitation. 2) Definition of “danger close” (US DoD) In close air support, artillery, mortar, and naval gunfire

support fires is the term included in the method of engagement segment of a call for fires, which indicates that friendly forces are

within close proximity of the target.

DARPA          Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

Dazzle            Causes temporary blindness with Laser

DCPA             Distance between vessels approaching CPA

D&D               Denial & deception

DDD               Dull, dangerous, and dirty

D/D/D             Destruction, Disruption, Deception

DDOS             Distributed Denial of Service cyber attack

DE                   Dark Energy

DEFCON        Defense condition

DESERT STORM American-led coalition of forces (35 nations) in Gulf War 2 Aug. 1990- 28   Feb. 1991

DEW               Directed energy weapons (also DE) (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)

DF                   Direction-finding

DHCP              Dynamic host configuration protocol

DHS                Department of Homeland Security

DISN               Defense information systems network

DM                  Dark Matter

DNA               is a molecule inside cells that contains the genetic information responsible for the development and function of an organism.                                DNA molecules allow this information to be passed on from generation to generation.

DoD                Department of Defense

DOF                Degrees of Freedom

DOS                Denial of Service attack

DPRK             Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

DRC                Democratic Republic of Congo

DRL                Drone Racing League

DS                   Deep Space

DTRA             Defense Threat Reduction Agency

DUST              Dual-use Science & Technology threat

1090ES – 1090 Extended Squitter Data Link

EA                   Electronic Attack

Earth Trace    The Earth Trace is the locus of latitude and longitude of the SVP as the satellite moves through its orbit.

EARSC            European Association of Remote Sensing Companies

EBO                Effects-based operations

ECCM / EP     Electronic counter-countermeasures / Electronic Protection

ECD                Dr. Manuel  Eichelberger’s advanced implementation of CD to detect & mitigate spoofing attacks on GPS or ADS-B signals                                     (Eichelberger, 2019)

ECCO              Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean

ECCT              Enterprise Capabilities Collaboration Team

ECM               Electronic countermeasures

ECMWF         European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

EEG                Electroencephalograms

EHC                Extra high voltage

EHS                 Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

ELINT             Electronic Intelligence

ELSA-D          Twin small satellite launched in 2020 for End-of-Life-Servicing & Long-Term orbital sustainability

EM                  Electromagnetic waves

EMC               Electromagnetic compatibility

EMD               Electromagnetic deception

EMF                Electromagnetic field / Shallow electromagnetic fields

EMI                 Electromagnetic interference

EMP                Electromagnetic pulse –  electromagnetic energy.

EMR               Electromagnetic radiation

EMS                Electromagnetic spectrum

EMT                Emergency Medical Technicians

EO                   Electro-optical system

EOS                 Earth Observation Satellites

EPC                 Evolved packet core

ESA                 European Space Agency

ESG                 Environmental, social, & corporate governance

ESR                 Electron Spin Resonance

ESOC              European Space Operations Center located in Darmstadt, Germany

EW                 Electronic warfare[Legacy EW definitions: EW was classically divided into (Adamy D., EW 101 A First Course in Electronic                                        Warfare, 2001):

  • ESM – Electromagnetic Support Measures – the receiving part of EW;
  • ECM – Electromagnetic Countermeasures – jamming, chaff, and flares used to interfere with operations of radars, military communications, and heat-seeking weapons;
  • ECCM -Electronic Counter-Counter Measures – measures are taken to design or operate radars or communications systems to counter the effects of ECM.[1]

Anti-radiation Weapons (ARW) and Directed Energy Weapons (DEW) were not included in the EW definitions. The USA and NATO have                               updated these categories:

  • ES – Electronic warfare Support (old ESM) to monitor the R.F. environment;
  • EA – Electronic Attack – the old ECM includes ASW and D.E. weapons to deny, disrupt, deceive, exploit, and destroy adversary electronic systems.
  • EP – Electronic Protection Measures – (old ECCM) (Adamy D., EW 101 A First Course in Electronic Warfare, 2001) to guard friendly systems from hostile attacks.[2]

EW      Electronic Warfare (EW) is the art and science of denying an enemy the benefits of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) while                             preserving them for friendly forces. (Wolff, 2022)ES is different from Signal Intelligence (SIGINT). SIGINT comprises Communications                   Intelligence (COMINT) and Electronic Intelligence (ELINT). All these fields involve the receiving of enemy transmissions. (Adamy D.,                     EW 101 A First Course in Electronic Warfare, 2001)

EUMETSAT   European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

ESA                 European Space Energy

ET                   Extraterrestrial

FAA                Federal Aviation Agency

FC                   First Contact

FDM               Fused Deposition Modeling technique

Fermion         Fundamental particles that spin in half-integer values (1/2, 3/2, 5/2…)

FHSS              Frequency-hopping spread spectrum

FIRES             definition (US DoD – JP 3-0) is the use of weapon systems to create a specific lethal or nonlethal effect on a target

FPV                 First-person video

FPS                 Feet Per Second

FTP                 Feed The Planet

FY-4                China (FY-4) Lightning Mapping Imager

G                      G is the gravitational constant, N x m2 / kg2 ; N= Newtons, G = 6.067 X 10-11

GAO                Government Accountability Office

GCS                 Ground control station

GEE                 Google Earth Engine

GEO                Group on Earth Observations

GEOINT         Geo-Spatial Intelligence

GGSN             Gateway GPRS support node

GIS                  Geographical information system

GLM               Geostationary Lightning Mappers

GMO               Genetically modified crops

GNSS              Global Navigation Satellite System (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, Beidou & other regional systems)

GNU                GNU / Linux Operating system

GOES              R-series Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES-16 and 17)

GPC                Reoptimizing for Great Power Competition

GPM               Global precipitation measurement

GPRS              General packet radio service

GPS                 Global Positioning System (US) [3] (USGPO, 2021)

GPS                 Global Positioning System / Geo-Fencing

GPS/INS         uses GPS satellite signals to correct or calibrate a solution from an inertial navigation system (INS). The method applies to any                               GNSS/INS system

GPT-4             Open AI’s Generative Pretrained Transformer 4

GRU                Russian military intelligence branch

GS                   Ground Station

gSSURGO       Gridded Soil Survey Geographic Database

GSFD              Ground Station flood denial

GSM               Global system for mobile communications

GTA                Ground-to-Air Defense

Hard damage  DEW complete vaporization of a target

HAPS              High Altitude Platforms (generally for wireless communications enhancements)

HAPS UAVs   UAVs dedicated to HAPS service (for example, to communicate via CNPC links)

HAZMAT       Hazardous Materials (may refer to special personnel protective equipment)

HCM               Hypersonic cruise missile

HEAT              High-explosive anti-tank warhead

HEL                High Energy Laser

HGV               Hypersonic glide vehicle

HL                   High Level

HLR                Home location register

HMI                Human Machine Interface

HPM               High powered microwave

HOW              Hand-over-word satellite data timestamp defined in (IS-GPS-200G, 2013)

HTV                Hypersonic test vehicle

HUMINT        Human Intelligence (aka HI)

HVM               Hostile vehicle mitigation

IAEA               International Atomic Energy Agency

IC                    Intelligence community ~ 17 different agencies

ICAO               International Civil Aviation Organization

ICBM              Intercontinental ballistic missile

ICS                  Internet Connection Sharing / Industrial control systems

ICT                  Information & Communications Technology

ICTS               Information & Communications Technology Services

ID                    Information Dominance / Inspection and Identification /Identification

IDEX              International Defense Exhibition and Conference

IDS                 Intrusion detection system

IED                 Improvised Explosive Device

IEEE               Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IFF                 Identify Friend or Foe

IIIM                International, Impartial, and Independent Mechanism

IMU                Inertial Measurement Unit

IND                 Improvised nuclear device

INS                 Inertial navigation system

INSA               Intelligence and National Security Alliance

INFOSEC        Information Security

IO /I.O.            Information Operations

IoT                  Internet of things

IIoT                 Industrial Internet of Things

IP                    Internet protocol

IPSec               Internet protocol security

IR                    Infrared

IS                    Information Security / Islamic State

ISP                  Internet service provider

ISO                  International Organization Standardization

ISM                 In-space manufacturing

ISS                  International Space Station

ISIS                 Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS)

ISR                  Intelligence, Reconnaissance and Surveillance UAS Platform

ISTAR            Intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and Reconnaissance

IT                    Information Technology

IT/OT              Information Technology/ Operational Technology

ITE                  Installation, Training, Expense

ITP                  In trial procedure

IW                   Information Warfare

IXP                  Internet exchange points

JARVIS           Just A Rather Very Intelligent System

JADO              Joint All Domain Operations

JIM                  Joint Investigative Mechanism

JLASS             Joint Land, Air, and Sea Strategic Exercise

JPL                  NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory

JSR                  Jamming-to-signal ratio

KE                   Kinetic energy

KEW               Kinetic energy weapon

K’IHAP          Short Shout in Tae Kwon Do

KKW               Kinetic Kill Weapon/Warhead

LASER           “A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term “laser” originated as an acronym for “light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.” A laser differs from other light sources in that it emits light coherently, spatially, and temporally. Spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused on a tight spot, enabling laser cutting and lithography applications laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances (collimation), enabling applications such as laser pointers. Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i.e., they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond. Used: for military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and measuring Range and speed.” (Wiki-L, 2018)

LaWS              Laser weapon system

LCDR              Lieutenant Commander

LED                Light emitting diodes

LENS              Laser-engineered net shaping

LDEF              Long Duration Exposure Facility

LGF                 Low Gradient Furnace

LIAB               Lab-in-a-box

LiDAR            Light Detection and Ranging – an RS method using light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges

LOS                Line-of-sight / Loss of Signal / Loss of Separation

LLM                Large Language Models

LLTR              Low-level transit route

LM or L.M.     Loitering munitions

LMM               Lightweight Multi-role Missiles

LPI                  Low Probability of Intercept

LRAD             Long-Range Acoustic Device  / Long-Range Area Denial [4]

LWSI              Livestock Weather Safety Index

M&S               Modeling and simulation technologies

Mach 1            Speed of sound, 761.2 mph

MAD               Mutually assured destruction

M-ATV           Mine-resistant ambush-protected vehicle

MAME            Medium altitude medium endurance

MASER          Microwave Amplification Stimulated Emission of Radiation

MASINT         Measurement Intelligence

MAST             Micro Autonomous Systems & Technology

MDC2             CSAF’s Multi-Domain Command and Control

MEDUSA       (Mob Excess Deterrent Using Silent Audio)

MEMS            Micro-electro-mechanical systems

MeRT              Magnetic Resonance Therapy

MIM                Man-in-middle attack

MIRV              Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles

ML                  Machine learning

MLAT             Multilateration System

MME              Mobility management entity

MMEVR         Multi-Mission Extra Vehicular Robot

MMOD           Micrometeoroids and orbital debris

MND               Ministry of National Defense

MOA               Minute of angle in degrees / Memorandum of Understanding

MOB               Man overboard*

MOPP             Mission Oriented Protective Posture (MOPP) Gear

MoU                Memorandum of Understanding

MRI                 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRVs             Multiple Reentry Vehicles

mTBI              mild Traumatic Brain Injury

MRG               Europe – Meteosat Third Generation Lightning Imager

MS                  Mobile stations

MSC                Mobile switching center

MSFC             NASA Marshall Space Flight Center

MTI                 Moving target indicator

MUM-T           Manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T)

NAS                National Academy Of Sciences

NATO             North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NASA             National Aeronautical and Space Administration

NAT                Network access point

NCSS              National Cooperative Soil Survey

NDM               Navigation data modification spoofing attack

NDVI              Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NEB                New Economic Block soldier

NERC             North American Electric Reliability Corporation

NEUROSTRIKE Series of cognitive impairment events caused by Cyber, Cognitive, Nanotech, Electronic Gateways, Metaverse, and CHATGPT

NGB                National Guard Board

NGO               Nongovernmental organization

NHTSA           National Highway Traffic Safety Administration

NIEHS            National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

NIPRGPT        10 June 2024, the DAF released an experimental bridge to access generative AI on the Non-classified Internet Protocol Router                              Network (NIPR) called NIPRGPT

NIR                 Near Infrared

NKW              non-kinetic warfare

NMA               Navigation Message Authentication

NO2                Nitrogen dioxide

NOAA             National Oceanic & Atmospheric Agency

NoN                Network of Networks

NWC               Naval War College

NV                  Neurological vulnerability

OCONUS        Outside Continental United States

ODNI              Office of Deputy National Intelligence

OLI                  Operational Land Imager

OMAR            On-Orbit Manufacture, Assembly and Recycling

OMI                Ozone Monitoring Instrument

OODA            Observe, Orient, Decide, and Act decision loops

OPCW            Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons

OPERATION SOUTHERN WATCH Location Southern Iraq: 26 Aug. 1992 – 19 Mar. 2003 Air Operation conducted by JTF-SWA to control airspace south of 32nd Parallel

OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM Protracted conflict to remove Iraqi President Saddam Hussein from power. 20 Mar 2003- 15 Dec. 2011. (aka 2nd Gulf War)

OPSEC           Operational Security

OSINT            Open-source intelligence (also OSI)

OTH                Over-the-horizon

OTS                 Officers Training School

PEP                 Pauli Exclusion Principle

PETMAN        Humanoid robot developed for US Army -Protection Ensemble Test Mannequin

PFMI               Pore formation and mobility investigation furnace

PGW               Packet data network gateway

Phigital            Digital and human characteristics & patterns overlap

PII                   Private identifying information and credentials

PLA                Peoples Liberation Army (Chinese)

PLAN             Peoples Liberation Army & Navy (Chinese)

Planck Constant The Planck constant is a crucial value in QM that describes the quantization of energy, momentum, and angular momentum                            at microscopic scales. Its value is approximately 6.62607015×10−34 joule-seconds, making ℏ approximately 1.0545718×10−34                                  joule-seconds.

PME                Professional Military Education

PMU               Phasor Measurement Unit

PNT                 Positioning, navigation, and timing systems

POV                Point of view

PQC                Post-quantum cryptography

PRAM             Photovoltaic Radio-frequency Antenna Module technology

PRN                Pseudo-Random Noise

PSA                 Protective Security advisors

PSR                 Primary Surveillance Radar

PSTN              Public switched telephone network

PSYOPS         Psychological warfare operations

QA                  Quantum algorithms / Quantum annealing

QAI                 Quantum artificial intelligence

Qubit              Quantum state of an ion

QC                   Quantum computing / Quantum cryptography

QE                   Quantum efficiency

QFT                 Quantum Fourier Transform

QKD                Quantum key distribution

QM                  Quantum mechanics

QOS                Quality of service

QS                   Quantum system

RAN                Radio access network

RC                   Radio communications signals

RCS                 Radar cross-section

RDD                Radiological dispersion device

RED FLAG EXERCISE 2-week advanced aerial combat training exercise

RF                   Radio Frequency

RF-EMF          Radiofrequency – Electromagnetic field

RFID               Radio-frequency identification (tags)

RID                 Remote identification of ID

RIMPAC        Rim of the Pacific

RKA                Chinese Relativistic Klystron Amplifier

RN                  Ryan-Nichols Qualitative Risk Assessment

RNRA            Ryan – Nichols Attack / Defense Scenario Risk Assessment for Cyber cases

ROA               Remotely operated aircraft

ROC                Republic of China

ROV/ROUV   Remote operating vehicle / Remotely operated underwater vehicle

RPA                Remotely piloted aircraft

RPAS              Remotely piloted system

RPO                Rendezvous and Proximity Operations

RPV                Remotely piloted vehicle

RS                   Remote sensing

RSS                 Received signal strength / Remote Sensing & Surveillance

RTU                Remote terminal units

RV                  Reentry vehicle

SA                   Situational Awareness

SAA                Sense and Avoid

SAFB              Sheppard Air Force Base

SAM               Surface to Air missile

SAR                Synthetic aperture radar

SATINT          Satellite Intelligence

SATCOM       Satellite communications

SBLM             Submarine-launched ballistic missile

SC                   Safety constraints

SCADA          Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems

SCS                 Shipboard control system (or station) / Stereo Camera System / South China Seas

SD                   Space Dominance /System Dynamics

SDA                Space Domain Awareness

SDM               System Dynamic Modeling

SDR                Software-defined radio

SEAD             Suppression of enemy defenses

SECAF            Secretary of the Air Force

SECDEF         Secretary of Defense (USA)

SGSN              Serving GPRS support node

SGW               Serving gateway

SIAB               School-in-a-box

SIC                  Successive Signal Interference Cancellation

SIGINT           Signals Intelligence

Signature      UAS detection by acoustic, optical, thermal, and radio /radar

SLM                Small Language Models

SMART          Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

SML                Space mobility and logistics area support

SMF                Session management function

S/N                  S / N = is one pulse received signal to noise ratio, dB: Signal to Noise ratio at HAPS receiver (also, SNR)

SNCOA           Senior Non-Commissioned Officer Academy

SO2                 Sulfur dioxide

SOAD             Space Operational Art and Design

Soft damage    DEW disruption to a UAS computer

SOCOM          U.S. Army Special Operations Command

SOLAS           Safety of Life at Sea (International Maritime Convention) [safety conventions]

SOS                 Squadron Officer School / Systems of Systems (SoS)

SQF                 Solidification Quench Furnace

Spoofing is A Cyber-weapon attack that generates false signals to replace valid ones. GPS Spoofing is an attack to provide false information to GPS receivers by broadcasting counterfeit signals similar to the original GPS signal or by recording the original GPS signal captured somewhere else at some other time and then retransmitting the signal. The Spoofing Attack causes GPS receivers to provide incorrect information about position and time. (T.E. Humphreys, 2008) (Tippenhauer & et.al, 2011) (Eichelberger, Robust Global Localization using GPS and Aircraft Signals, 2019) (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)

Spoofing         Alt Def: A Cyber-weapon attack generates false signals to replace valid ones.

SSBN              Strategic nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine

SSL/TLS         Secure sockets layer/ transport layer control

SSLT               Seamless satellite-lock takeover spoofing attack

SSN                 Space Surveillance Network

SSR                 Secondary Surveillance Radar

STEALTH       to resist detection

STPA              Systems-Theoretic Process-Analysis

STM                Space traffic management

sUAS              Small Unmanned Aircraft System

SUBSA           Solidification using a Baffle in Sealed Ampoules

SVP                 Sub-vehicle point – Point on earth’s surface right below the Satellite

SWARM         High level, a dangerous collaboration of UAS, UUV, or unmanned boats

SWAT             Space Warfare Analysis Tools; Special Weapons and Tactics

T2AR              T2 Augmented Reality project

Taiwan ROC   Taiwan is officially the Republic of China

TCAS              Traffic Collision Avoidance system

TCP/IP            Transmission control protocol/ Internet protocol

TDOA             Time difference of arrival

TEAM (UAS) High-level, a dangerous collaboration of UAS, UUV, or unmanned boats; differs from SWARM in that it has a UAS Team Leader                               (TL) where SWARM does not. TL directs the UAS team and is the primary counter-UAS target for disruption.

TIROS             Television InfraRed Observational Satellite

TMS                Transcranial magnetic stimulation

TNT                 Trinitrotoluene

TO                   Theater of Operations

TOA                Time of arrival

ToF                 Time of flight

TRANSEC      Transmission security

TSP                 Traveling Salesman Problem

TTFF               Time to first fix (latency)

TTPs                Tactic, Technique, and Procedures

Tx                    Transmit signal

UA                  Unmanned Aircraft (non-cooperative and potential intruder)

UAM               Urban Air Mobile (vehicle)

UAS-p             UAS pilot

UAS                Unmanned aircraft system (popularly but incorrectly referred to as drones)

UAT                Universal access transceiver

UAV               Unmanned aerial vehicle / Unmanned autonomous vehicle.

UAV-p            UAV pilot

UCAs              Unsafe Control Actions

UCAR             Unmanned combat armed rotorcraft

UCARS          UAV standard automated recovery system

UCWA / UA   Unintentional cyber warfare attack

UGCS             Unmanned Ground Control Station

UGS                Unmanned ground-based station

UGT                Unmanned ground transport

UGV               Unmanned ground vehicle

UHF                Ultra-high frequency

UNOOSA        The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

USAF              U.S. Air Force

USDA             US Department of Agriculture

USMC             U.S. Marine Corps

USN                U.S. Navy

USV                Unmanned Surface Vessel

UUV               Unmanned underwater vehicle

UWB              Ultrawideband

VBN                Visual-based navigation

VBN LiDAR   Visual-based navigation: Light Detection and Ranging – an RS method using light in the form of a pulsed laser to measure ranges

VDL               VHF Data link

VQE               Variational Quantum Eigensolver

VI                   Vegetation Indices

VIEW              Virtual Interface Environment Workstation

VIIRS              Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite

VIS                  Visible

VPL                 Visual Programming Languages

VR                  Virtual reality

VRT                Variable rate technology

VLOS             visual line of sight

VTOL             Vertical take-off and landing

VX                  Deadly nerve agent

WAM             Wide area multilateration

WF                  Wave function, denoted by ψ

WFOV            Wide field of view

WFUL             Wake Forrest University Laboratory

WHO               World Health Organization

WLAN            Wide Local area network

WMD              Weapons of Mass Destruction

WMDD          Mini-Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption

WMO             World Meteorological Organization

XR                  Extended reality

 

Particular Definitions (Nichols & Carter, 2022) (Nichols R. K., 2020)

Asymmetric warfare can describe a conflict in which the resources of two belligerents differ in essence and, in the struggle, interact and attempt to exploit each other’s characteristic weaknesses. Such struggles often involve strategies and tactics of unconventional warfare, the weaker combatants attempting to use strategy to offset deficiencies in the quantity or quality of their forces and equipment. (Thomas, 2010) Such strategies may not necessarily be militarized. (Steponova, 2016)

This contrasts with symmetric warfare, where two powers have comparable military power and resources and rely on similar tactics, differing only in details and execution. (Thomas, 2010)

 

Classification of Satellites

Satellites are classified in terms of their purpose and are classified as follows:

Astronomical satellites – observation of distant planets and galaxies;

Biosatellites – carry living organisms to aid scientific experiments;

Communication satellites – communications satellites use geosynchronous or Low Earth orbits to communicate with each other and other systems;

Earth observation satellites (EOS) are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, and producing maps;

Killer satellites are designed to destroy warheads, satellites, and space-based objects;

Navigational satellites use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively straightforward line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the Order of a few meters in real time;

Reconnaissance satellites are communications satellites deployed for military or intelligence applications;

Recovery satellites provide recovery of Reconnaissance, biological, space-production, and other payloads from orbit to Earth;

Space stations are orbital structures designed for human beings to live in space. A space station is distinguished from other crewed spacecraft by its lack of primary propulsion or landing facilities. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit;

Tether satellites are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether, and

Weather satellites are used to monitor Earth’s weather and climate.

Drake Equation. An equation proposed by Cornell astronomer Frank Drake in 1961 attempts to calculate the number of sentient species that could exist and are potential contacts during the life of our civilization.

 

Electronic Warfare (EW) is the art and science of denying an enemy the benefits of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS) while preserving them for friendly forces. (Wolff, 2022)

Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) is the analysis and identifying intercepted transmissions, including frequency, bandwidth,  modulation (“waveform”), and polarization. Four categories of SIGINT are: (Wolff, 2022)

  • Electronic Intelligence (ELINT)
  • Communications Intelligence (COMINT)
  • Foreign instrument SIGINT (FISINT)Measurement intelligence (MASINT) Covered in Chapter 10 of DRONE DELIVERY OF CBNRECy – DEW WEAPONS Emerging Threats of Mini-Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption (WMDD)  (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)

EW Sub-Areas

Electronic Warfare Support (EWS/ES) measures detection, intercept, identification, location, and localizes sources of intended and unintended radiated electromagnetic (EM) energy. (Wolff, 2022)

Activities related to ES include:

  • Electronic Reconnaissance: location, identification, and evaluation of foreign electromagnetic radiation
  • Electronic Intelligence: Technical and geolocation intelligence derived from foreign non-communications electromagnetic radiation emanating from sources other than nuclear detonations or radioactive sources
  • Electronics security: protection resulting from all measures designed to deny unauthorized persons information of value that might be derived from the interception and study of non-communications electromagnetic radiation, e.g., radar. (Wolff, 2022)[3]

Electronic Attack (EA) activities – may be either offensive or defensive and include: (Wolff, 2022)

  • Countermeasures: employment of devices and techniques that have as their objective the impairment of the operational effectiveness of enemy activity
  • Electromagnetic deception: Covered in Chapter 7 of DRONE DELIVERY OF CBNRECy – DEW WEAPONS
  • Emerging Threats of Mini-Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption (WMDD) (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022) Various EM deception techniques, such as a false target or duplicate target generation, confuse the enemy intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance systems (ISR). (Wolff, 2022)
  • Electromagnetic intrusion: the intentional insertion of EM energy (EME) into transmission paths in any manner to deceive operators or to cause confusion.
  • Electromagnetic jamming is deliberate radiation, reradiation, or reflection of EME to prevent or reduce an enemy’s effective use of the EMS with the intent of degrading or neutralizing the enemy’s combat capability.
  • An electromagnetic pulse is EM radiation from a solid electronic pulse [Directed energy weapons (DEW)] that may be coupled with electrical or electrical systems to produce damaging currents and voltages. (Wolff, 2022)Chapters 9-11 in DRONE DELIVERY OF CBNRECy – DEW WEAPONS Emerging Threats of Mini-Weapons of Mass Destruction and Disruption (WMDD) expertly cover the subject. (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)
  • Electronic probing is intentional radiation designed to be introduced into the devices and systems of potential enemies to learn the operational capabilities of the devices and systems.
  • Cyber or electronic spoofing: A Cyber-weapon attack that generates false signals to replace valid ones. GPS Spoofing is an attack to provide false information to GPS receivers by broadcasting counterfeit signals similar to the original GPS signal or by recording the original GPS signal captured somewhere else at some other time and then retransmitting the signal. The Spoofing attack causes GPS receivers to provide the wrong information about position and time. (T.E. Humphreys, 2008) (Tippenhauer & et.al, 2011) (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022)

Electronic protection measures (EP): EP measures fall into six categories (Wolff, 2022)

EM hardening: actions are taken to protect personnel, facilities, and or equipment by blanking, filtering, attenuating, grounding, bonding, and shielding against undesirable effects of EME.

Electronic masking: controlled radiation of EME on friendly frequencies to protect the emissions of friendly communications and electronic systems against enemy EWS measures and SIGINT  without significantly degrading the operation of friendly systems.

Emission control: sensitive and controlled use of EM, acoustic, or other emitters to optimize command and control (C2) capabilities while minimizing the following for operations security (OPSEC): 1) detection by enemy sensors; 2) mutual interference among friendly systems; 3) enemy interference with the ability to execute a military deception plan. (Wolff, 2022)

EMS management: planning, coordinating, and managing joint use of the EMS through operational, engineering, and administrative procedures.

Wartime reserve modes: characteristics and operating procedures for sensors, communications, navigation aids, threat recognition, weapons, and countermeasures systems that will contribute to military effectiveness if unknown to or misunderstood by opposing commanders before they are used but could be exploited or neutralized if known in advance. (Wolff, 2022)

EM compatibility: the ability of systems, equipment, and devices that use the EMS to operate in their intended environments without causing or suffering unacceptable or unintentional degradation because of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) or response. (Wolff, 2022) This is a fundamental concept and is exploited by the use of UAS against USN assets in the South China Seas (SCS.) (Nichols & al., Unmanned Vehicle Systems and Operations on Air, Sea, and Land, 2020)

False Flag Operation – the organized spreading of misinformation or disinformation.

Eichelberger Collective Detection (ECD) Definitions / Counter-Spoofing Concepts

Acquisition – Acquisition is the process in a GPS receiver that finds the visible satellite signals and detects the delays of the PRN sequences and the Doppler shifts of the signals.

Circular Cross-Correlation (CCC) – In a GPS classical receiver, the circular cross-correlation is a similarity measure between two vectors of length N, circularly shifted by a given displacement d:

N-1

                                      Cxcorr (a, b , d) = ∑    ai dot bI + d mod N             Equation 3-1

I=0

The two vectors are most similar at the displacement d, where the sum (CCC value) is maximum. The vector of CCC values with all N displacements can be efficiently computed by a fast Fourier transform (FFT) in Ớ ( N log N ) time.  [4](Eichelberger, Robust Global Localization using GPS and Aircraft Signals, 2019)

Like classical GPS receivers, coarse-time Navigation (CTN) is a snapshot receiver localization technique that measures sub-millisecond satellite ranges from correlation peaks. (IS-GPS-200G, 2013) [See also expanded definition above.]

Collective Detection (CD) is a maximum likelihood snapshot receiver localization method, which does not determine the arrival time for each satellite but combines all the available information and decides only at the end of the computation. This technique is critical to the (Eichelberger, Robust Global Localization using GPS and Aircraft Signals, 2019) invention to mitigate spoofing attacks on GPS or ADS-B.

Coordinate System – A coordinate system uses an ordered list of coordinates to describe the location of points in space uniquely. The meaning of the coordinates is defined concerning some anchor points. The point with all coordinates being zero is called the origin. [ Examples: terrestrial, Earth-centered, Earth-fixed, ellipsoid, equator, meridian longitude, latitude, geodetic latitude, geocentric latitude, and geoid. [5]

Localization – Process of determining an object’s place concerning some reference, usually coordinate systems. [aka Positioning or Position Fix]

Navigation Data is the data transmitted from satellites, which includes orbit parameters to determine the satellite locations, timestamps of signal transmission, atmospheric delay estimations, and status information of the satellites and GPS as a whole, such as the accuracy and validity of the data. (IS-GPS-200G, 2013) [6]

Pseudo-random noise (PRN) sequences are pseudo-random bit strings. Each GPS satellite uses a unique PRN sequence with a length of 1023 bits for its signal transmissions. Aka, as Gold codes have a low cross-correlation with each other. (IS-GPS-200G, 2013)

Snapshot GPS Receiver–  A snapshot receiver is a global positioning satellite (GPS) receiver that captures one or a few milliseconds of raw GPS signal for a location fix. (Diggelen, 2009)

GO VS. CHESS –  Space Dominance should be thought of as a game of GO,[7] NOT chess. In the former, the opponent aims to encircle (strangle) the opponent and deny him his strategic maneuver capability; in the latter, the opponent seeks to completely deprive him of individual pieces (assets) or prevent defensive movement so that he can slaughter his ruler (king). (Wright, 2020)

ISR – Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance [8]

Intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance operations (ISR) are used to collect information about the enemy, terrain, weather, and other aspects of the Area of Operation (AO) that will affect friendly combat operations. (Global Security.Org, 2022)

The Army has conducted Reconnaissance and surveillance tasks since its inception. The production of intelligence (the product resulting from the collection, processing, integration, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of available information concerning an enemy force or area of operation) has always been critical to accomplishing the mission. ISR is the term currently applied to combined arms enabling operations that were previously described as reconnaissance and surveillance (a maneuver or collection task), along with the production and dissemination of intelligence (a staff task). ISR is a constant, continuous, and optimized operation that focuses on the collection of relevant information that is analyzed to create intelligence to support the commander’s and or leader’s situational understanding and the operational cycle. (Global Security.Org, 2022) 

ISR Systems and Space Technologies

MIT gives a fascinating purview of their mission for ISR from space. They see it as “Creating Technology To Provide Vital Tactical Information.” They conduct “R&D in advanced sensing, signal and image processing, decision support technology, and high-performance embedded computing to provide systems capable of gathering reliable intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance information.” (MIT R&D, 2022) It is this purview that the authors see from the user POV to develop “earth traces” from space capable of yielding unique information on non-military technologies such as agriculture management, crop rotation, global food supply, tree and fire zone management, and cattle management.

Satellite Orbits

The most common type of orbit is a geocentric orbit, with over 3,000 active artificial satellites orbiting the Earth. Geocentric orbits may be further classified by their altitude, inclination, and eccentricity.

The commonly used altitude classifications of the geocentric orbit are Low Earth Orbit (LEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO), and High Earth Orbit (HEO). Low Earth Orbit is any orbit below 2,000 km, Medium Earth Orbit is any orbit between 2,000 and 36,000 km, and High Earth Orbit is more significant than 36,000 km. LLO: low lunar orbit is approximately 100 km above the lunar surface. L1 and L2: “Lagrange points are caused by the balance between the gravitational fields of two large bodies, equilibria between two pulling forces.

 Centric classifications

A galactocentric orbit is an orbit around the center of a galaxy.

A heliocentric orbit is an orbit around the Sun. In our Solar System, all planets, comets, and asteroids are in such orbits, as are many artificial satellites and pieces of space debris.

Geocentric orbit is an orbit around Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. Currently, over 2,500 active artificial satellites are orbiting the Earth.

Altitude classifications

Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 180 km – to 2,000 km;

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 km – to 20,000 km;

Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO): Geocentric circular orbit with an altitude of 36,000 km. The orbit period equals one sidereal day, which coincides with the Earth’s rotation period. The speed is 3,075 m/s (10,090 ft/s).

High Earth orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the altitude of a geosynchronous orbit (GEO) > 36,000 km (~ 40,000 km).

Light-year – 5.879 x 1012 miles  

Agroterrorism / Bioterrorism Definitions

Agroterrorism is a subset of bioterrorism and is defined as the deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease to generate fear, causing economic losses and undermining stability. (O.S. Cupp, 2004)

Bioterrorism is the threat or use of biological agents by individuals or groups motivated by political, religious, ecological, or other ideological objectives.

Earth Observation Epidemiology or tele-epidemiology is defined as ‘using space technology with remote sensing in epidemiology. (Wiki, 2022)

MASINT – Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) is a technical branch of intelligence gathering that detects, tracks, identifies, or describes the distinctive characteristics (signatures) of fixed or dynamic target sources. This often includes radar, acoustic, nuclear, chemical, and biological intelligence. MASINT is scientific and technical intelligence derived from the analysis of data obtained from sensing instruments to identify any distinctive features associated with the source, emitter, or sender to facilitate the latter’s measurement and identification. (Wiki, 2022)

OSI, short for OPEN-SOURCE Intelligence (also known as OSINT), is defined as any intelligence produced from publicly available information that is collected, exploited, and disseminated in a timely manner to an appropriate audience to address a specific intelligence requirement. (Bazzell, 2021)

Remote Sensing (RS) uses non-ground-based imaging systems to obtain information about processes and events on Earth. It is unique among the detection and diagnostic methods discussed herein in its ability to offer passive monitoring for the disease at scale rather than active sampling. (Silva & et.al, 2021)

Sentient – The ability of an organism to perceive and feel things. This definition implies that said organism is capable of rational thought and decision-making.

State – A state can mean a country, a government, or a political authority. It means absolute control over a fixed territory on Earth.

 

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Endnotes

[1] All Acronyms taken from (Nichols R. K., 2020) and  (Nichols & Sincavage, 2022) unless otherwise noted.

[2] EM definitions from (Wolff, 2022)

[3] Since 1998, Christian Wolff has maintained the educational website www.radartutorial.eu

[4] Ớ = Order of magnitude; dot = dot product for vectors

[5] All these systems are discussed in Chapter 2 of (Eichelberger, Robust Global Localization using GPS and Aircraft Signals, 2019)

[6] Each satellite has a unique 1023-bit PRN sequence, plus some current navigation data, D. Each bit is repeated 20 times for better robustness. The navigation data rate is limited to 50 bit / s. This also limits sending timestamps every 6 seconds and satellite orbit parameters (function of the satellite location over time) only every 30 seconds. As a result, the latency of the first location estimates after turning on a classic receiver, called the time first to fix (TTFF), can be high.

[7] AKA wei qi or baduk in Chinese and Korean, respectively.

[8] ISR is defined only from the USA Army POV.

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Advanced Technologies for Humanity Copyright © 2024 by Nichols, R.K.; Ackerman, P.E, Andrews, E., Carter, C.M., DeMaio, D.D., Knaple, B.S.,  Larson, H., Lonstein, W.D., McCreight, R., Muehlfelder, T., Mumm, H.C., Murthy, R., Ryan, J.J.C.H., Sharkey, K.L., Sincavage, S.M. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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